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A collection of deleted pages, listed in file name order.

Clothing

Over the decades of long-duration flight in the Russian space program, various specialized items of clothing and hygiene have been developed to ensure the comfort of those living on board a space station.

Inflight clothing has been developed by the Kentavr-Science, Ltd. company, in consultation with the Institute of Medical and Biological Problems. There are 21 items of clothing to choose from, including underwear, socks and lingerie (for women). Color is considered an important psychological factor for long missions; they should be appealing and harmonious with the Station’s interior color scheme. Cosmonauts can choose any color combination that appeals to them.

Quality control is strict. The clothing is cleaned, inspected and x-rayed for any stray pins or needles, sterilized with an electronic beam, packed in a hermetically-sealed bag and numbered. The clothing is tear-resistant and no buttons are used in case these should come loose and be accidentally swallowed in zero-g (zippers, Velcro and snaps are used instead).

The descriptions below were taken from the Service Module Medical Operations, Book 1 (in Links section), dated 25 September 2000, so clothing may have changed somewhat since then.

Underwear

Set of undergarments:

Change underwear once every 7 days; change socks every 3 days. 30 pairs of socks and 60 sets of underwear are provided for a 6-month flight per crewperson.

Kamelia-SM, «Камелиа-СМ» Set – worn as underwear and during physical training:

Change Kamelia-SM set once every 3 days. Wear for three days, then put aside to wear for one more day only during physical exercises.

Kamelia-A is light underwear; Kamelia-SM is warmer long underwear for cooler conditions. It can be worn by men and women. The material is a special elastic cotton.

The socks are specially padded to prevent crewmembers from developing flat feet in weightlessness, and are reinforced for treadmill workouts.

Disposable underwear set – for everyday wear:

Wear one set for four days.

Confection set – for everyday wear:

Confection sets come in individual sizes. Wear one set for three days.

Casual wear set – intended to provide for crew body temperature comfort during their stay in the ISS with ambient air temperature range of 20-30°С and is used for everyday wear:

The 6 T-shirts per package are different colors so a wearer can choose a color that suits his mood.

Costs (U.S. dollars): Camelia underwear is $45 to $50 apiece; a light suit is $90 to $95; socks are $3 per pair.

For ladies only!

Women have some nice lingerie to choose from: bras, T-shirts and bikini-type underpants, edged with lace, and made of cotton. A weekly set of underwear is provided; disposable underpants are changed each day. “The goal of this support is to make women on board feel like women, not just astronauts or cosmonauts.”

Cost: each lingerie set is $45 to $50 apiece.

Coveralls

Change coveralls

Change coveralls maintain crewmember’s comfortable body temperature under ISS ambient air temperatures in the range 20-30°С.

Coveralls have several types of pockets to hold documents, memos, photos, pencils, ballpoint pens, knife, etc.

Coveralls have lateral seams in thigh area with zippers. Upper part of coveralls’ backside with waist belt and lateral zippers forms a turndown flap (see Figure 3.2, p. 3-4 and Figure 3.3, p.3-5), allowing a wearer to use the toilet without doffing coveralls.

The coveralls are made of cotton and lavsan.

Cost: $350 per garment.

Warm coveralls

Warm coveralls maintain a crewmember’s comfortable body temperature under ISS ambient air temperatures in the range 15-20°С. Comfortable temperatures are characterized by preservation of relatively high work capability. The fabric is a fine U.S. synthetic.

Features:

Operator’s coveralls

Operator’s coveralls maintain crewmember’s comfortable body temperature under ISS ambient air temperatures in the range 20-30°С. Comfortable temperatures are characterized by preservation of relatively high work capability.

Accessories

Tool belt

The tool belt is worn by a crewmember when performing any maintenance or installation/deinstallation activities. Composition:

Depending on the type of activity, crewmember may use various configurations of tool belt, as well as its separate parts and components. The tool belt comes in one size and can be adjusted at the waist using provided Velcro clip. Tool belt is made from Velcro pile to which different types of multi-pockets are attached using a Velcro hook. The specific design of each multi-pocket or fixer is determined by its purpose (for screwdrivers, pencils, wrenches, etc.)

“Sprut” securing harness

“Sprut” securing harness is used to secure crewmember in working area during performance of various tasks.

Composition:

Harness set consists of belt, short and long straps, and stowage bag. The elastic components have the following letter codes:

Straps are made in the shape of special-design belts (see Figure 3.7, p. 3-10), consisting of tensile and non-tensile elements, and a waist belt. One of the non-tensile elements has a metal clasp with moving lock. For straps attachment, working area shall be equipped with snap hooks. A snap hook is attached to loop on the end of strap non-tensile element. Stowage bag, containing the Sprut securing harness, is made in the shape of polycaprolactam cover with Velcro fastener. Each component and separate ticket is labeled.

Mounter’s set

Mounter’s set is used by crewmember when performing any maintenance or installation/deinstallation activities. Depending on type of required work, crewmember may use Mounter’s set in its various configurations, as well as its separate components.

Composition:

Front part of apron has pockets, metal D-rings, detail straps, attachment loops. Mounter’s set includes right (with two pouches) and left thigh multipockets whose special design allows them to be attached onto crewmember’s thighs. Mounter’s set includes arm multipocket attached to elastic cuff to be worn on a crewmember’s left arm. Multipocket is used for temporary stowage of various small items and tools required during in-flight maintenance (IFM) activities.

The elbow sleeve made from elastic stockinet protects crewmember’s working arm from possible skin abrasions or lesions when performing IFM activities in narrow spaces. Elbow sleeve together with wrist cuff provide for hand and arm protection from any neuromuscular strains possible during IFM work. Elbow sleeve should be worn on working arm providing comfortable compression sensation; after donning elbow sleeve, wrist cuff is put on and adjusted to provide similar sensation in wrist area.

All Mounter’s set parts are individually labeled.

Other

Sports footwear

Sports footwear (one pair) is used during physical training. Their containing plastic bag is labeled.

Soyuz

There are also garments worn during the Soyuz flight to the ISS, after the Sokol rescue suits are doffed. These consist of unisex change coveralls, a warm jacket and long-sleeved t-shirts. Note the zipper at the crotch of the coveralls, which is to facilitate using the toilet without removing one’s clothing.

“To make the suit fit.” ISS-64 crew tried on flight clothes

Before going into space, cosmonauts need to decide in advance on the sets of clothes that will be delivered to them by a cargo ship on board the International Space Station. Clothes are sewn individually, taking into account the characteristics of the figure and personal preferences of the Expedition members. It meets the conditions in which it is applied. In addition, flight clothing is functional, versatile and comfortable. Some items can be worn as casual wear or sportswear. An important feature of the products is the variety of colors. This has a positive effect on the psychological mood of cosmonauts during long-term expeditions.

T-shirts, polo shirts, shorts, trousers, overalls, suits and sportswear are preferred on the International Space Station. From shoes at the station – sneakers and cycling shoes for exercise on a stationary bike.

Each garment has a different lifespan: polo shirts are worn no more than 15 days, shorts are designed for 30 days, and trousers for approximately 45 days. The underwear is usually put on and worn within three days.

An important element in the trousers is the presence of strips. As the cosmonauts say, they allow to fix trousers along the entire length of the leg in zero gravity and prevent them from getting up.

To select and determine the size of clothes and shoes, Sergei Ryzhikov, Sergei Kud-Sverchkov and Kathleen Rubins conducted special classes at the Cosmonaut Training Center, where they took measurements from each crew member, tried on finished products, and recorded comments on tailoring. After these comments were entered into the protocol, the clothes were sent for revision.

“They sew clothes individually,” commented Nadezhda Simakhina, head of the training session at the CTC, when the crew tried on flight clothes. “Up to a centimeter, the length of the sleeve, pant leg, footstocks is calculated. At the request of the cosmonaut, a chevron with the emblem of the crew or expedition, his hometown or university where he studied, or a patch with the initials of his first and last name can be made on a jumpsuit or T-shirt.”

According to N. Simakhina, eco-friendly fabrics are used when sewing clothes, and all products are subject to special checks to avoid unnecessary inclusions possible during manufacture.

The range of products was developed taking into account the opinion of cosmonauts and specialists of the Yu.A. Gagarin, LLC Kentavr-Science by orders of the Rocket and Space Corporation Energia named after S.P. Korolev, with the participation of the Institute of Medical and Biological Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

(Source: TsPK/Roscomsos, 23/7/2020)

Gallery

Kentavr logo on space clothing

Kentavr logo on Sergei Krikalyov’s overalls.

ISS-64 in jumpsuits

Expedition 64 in their blue change coveralls or jumpsuits on the ISS, 30/10/2020.

Expedition 2 in Destiny lab, wearing warm coveralls

Expedition 2 wearing warm coveralls.

Yurii Gidzenko (ISS-1) communicating with ground controllers (NASA)

Yurii Gidzenko wearing operator’s coveralls.

Soyuz TMA-6 crew inflight

The Soyuz TMA-6 crew are clad in the garments worn during Soyuz flights to the ISS, 19 April 2005.

Links

Updated: 24/7/2020

Cosmonaut trivia

Some bits and pieces of information about cosmonauts.

Cosmonaut callsigns

Each Soyuz cosmonaut crew has a call-sign (позывной, pozyvnoi). These are a tradition from when crews were commanded by military/Air Force officers, and the signs were used for secrecy. This is no longer necessary, but the tradition continues (call-signs belong to the Russian commanders of the flights). From Mir Hardware Heritage:

Crew code names travel with the commander, and crew members take on the code name of the commander with whom they travel. For example, Helen Sharman returned to Earth in Soyuz TM-11 with commander Viktor Afanasyev (code name Derbent, «Дербент») and flight engineer Musa Manorov (Derbent Dva, «два, 2»). She thus became Derbent Tri, три (3) for her return to Earth. Sergei Krikalyov became Donbass Dva after Alexandr Volkov (code name Donbass, «Донбасс») replaced Artsebarski as his commander aboard Mir.

From Soyuz: A Universal Spacecraft:

Following a practise begun on the Vostok missions, each Commander assigns himself a callsign – usually derived from a geographical feature, a celestial body, a mineral, meteorological conditions, or from numerous other elements or phenomena. The Commander normally uses the same callsign on each of his missions, while the remainder of the crew adapt the same callsign, adding either “2” or “3” for personal identification. Several Flight Engineers have therefore, throughout their careers, used different callsigns when flying with different Commaders.

TsUP has a page (in Russian) with cosmonaut callsigns.

Crew formation

This information is derived from that posted by “Shams”/Шамс on the Novosti Kosmonavtki forum (4 January, 2004).

Crews are formed according to the following principles:

  1. Crews alternate between 2 Russians and 1 American, then 2 Americans and 1 Russian.
  2. Commanders of the Expeditions are alternatively a Russian cosmonaut, then an American astronaut. This has now changed a little with 2-person crews: S-8 and S-9 are commanded by Americans M. Foale and W. McArthur, respectively, but S-10 will be commanded by Russians G. Padalka then S-11 by S. Sharipov.
  3. Only experienced (previously flown into space) cosmonauts are assigned as Expedition commanders.
  4. Russian cosmonaut-testers consist of two groups (TsPK and RKKE); therefore those in charge try to assign crews evenly from both groups. The old rule that only military pilot-cosmonauts (from TsPK) could fly/command the Soyuz is no longer adhered to; cosmonaut-engineers from RKKE can be Soyuz commanders, also. (For example, in the crews S-12 and S-14 the TMA commanders are, correspondingly, Usachyov and Lazutkin).
  5. In crews where there are two cosmonauts assigned, one is flown, but another will be making his (or her) first flight. (With the ISS crews temporarily reduced to two, however, only experienced astronauts and cosmonauts are assigned as the ISS needs much maintenance.) Americans also adhere to this rule.

Emblem

A description of the Cosmonaut Group emblem, as described on the Space Encyclopedia Astronote, Космическая Энциклопедия ASTROnote, site – Эмблема отряда космонавтов России:

Cosmonaut Group patch

The emblem has the shape of a dual circle and is in the shape of a stylized spacecraft window or porthole. The top inscription reads: the “Cosmonaut Group,” below it: “Russia”. The edging and inscription are yellow; the cartouche is dark navy-blue. The inherent background of emblem is executed in the form of three spheres, which pass into space. The spheres symbolize by themselves the stages of the embodiment of the dream of humanity into the reality. The blue-colored lower sphere symbolizes mastery by man of its cradle, continents and oceans of the planet Earth. The medium-blue colored middle sphere symbolizes the mastery of the air and ocean. The dark blue colored upper sphere depicts the exit of man into the near-Earth outer space. The colors of spheres blend into the black background (or dark navy-blue), which is the symbol of the universe, space, infinity and unknown nature. Accomplishing flight beyond the limits of these spheres, man is torn away from his cradle and is heading for the stars.

The constellations of Ursa Major and Minor (large and small ladle), colored white, are superimposed against the emblem’s inherent background. The Pole star emits multiple rays. On the large ladle of the Pole star men determined the guiding thread of all original discoverers, travellers, researchers, explorers. All the basic coordinate systems, necessary during calculations of displacement both over the Earth, and in outer space, are focused on the Pole star.

Along the horizontal line of the emblem is placed the Latin inscription, also in white: “Per aspera ad astra” (“Through adversity to the stars!”) – the motto of the Russian Federation Cosmonaut Group.

The figure of the flying person occupies the central place in the emblem. He is sunlit (and is colored yellow) and he is facing the guiding star of humanity. The angle of the slope of body to the celestial axis composes 25°, or 65° relative to equatorial plane. Our compatriot Yurii Alekseevich Gagarin completed the first flight into space in the world on 12 April 1961, aboard the Vostok spacecraft. The angle of the orbit inclination composed 65°.

The emblem was developed in collaboration with the space center “Planet Earth”.

The emblem of the force of the cosmonauts of Russia was made official on 21 January, 2000, by the-then Rosaviakosmos Director-General Yu.N. Koptev. By this affirmation it provided that:

  1. The people who have the right to wear the patch with the emblem of the Russian Federation force of cosmonauts are the forces or groups of cosmonauts in the regular posts of cosmonaut-tester, cosmonaut-researcher, instructor of cosmonaut-tester, instructor-cosmonaut-researcher.
  2. The patch with the emblem of the Russian Federation force of cosmonauts can be placed on the service uniform, daily wear, training apparel, flight suits, and spacesuits.
  3. The patch with the emblem of the Russian Federation force of cosmonauts is sewn on the outer side of the right arm of clothing.

Salary

How much do cosmonauts get paid? Below is an extract from Russia in Space: The Failed Frontier? (Springer-Praxis, 2001).

The changes in the 1990s led to a significant alteration in the way in which cosmonauts were paid, one which amazed the Americans (and still does). American astronauts receive a standard military paycheck or, as civilians, a standard NASA one, regardless of whether they are on or off the planet. By contrast, following 1991, cosmonauts were put on an incentive system mimicking the worst practices of capitalism. Cosmonauts received a contract for each space mission, for which they were paid at a rate of $1001) a day (civilians were paid $80). They got a bonus of $1000 for a spacewalk. If particular aspects of the mission were not accomplished, fines were applied afterwards and deducted from the contract. For some peculiar reason, a bonus was applied for carrying out a manual docking. From the moment it was introduced, cosmonauts unfailingly informed ground control, about 10 metres before a smooth automatic docking, that unspecified problems had arisen and they had urgently to take over manual control!

Cosmonauts’ pay was also mentioned in this 2000 article about the Expedition 1 Russian crews’ wives, “Olga Gidzenko and Elena Krikalyov: The Cosmonauts’ Wives Talk Space”:

Want to be rich in Russia? Don’t be a cosmonaut

While being a cosmonaut offers the prestige of being one of the few humans to leave the planet, monetary compensation for the job is a sour point for space flyers and their families.

“I don’t think that Yuri is … [getting] … decent compensation for his hellishly hard work,” said Olga Gidzenko. “I believe that he deserves more both morally and materially.“

Elena Krikalyov agrees. “People who took smaller risks and spent less effort than cosmonauts make much more money,” Elena said. “Russia currently does not have a fair salary hierarchy.”

… Yuri Gidzenkno’s monthly salary is $250. It is still much higher than of many [Air Force] officers in Star City who make about $100 per month. Prices in the City are a little bit lower though, and when Yuri is preparing for a mission he gets free meals.

Sergei Krikalyov’s salary at RKK Energiya is about the same.

Gidzenko’s eldest son, Sergei, is studying in a paid college. Almost half of Yuri’s salary is spent on his tuition.

“We are able to maintain decent way of life for our family thanks to the money which Yuri makes on contracts while flying in space,” said Olga.

The Gidzenkos live in a three-bedroom apartment supplied to them free by Star City authorities. Its total area is 700 square feet (65 square meters). Krikalyov’s family lives in a three-story townhouse approximately three times as big as the Gidzenkos’ apartment. It also includes a garage.

1 The figures given are in U.S. dollars as the rouble – like the Australian dollar – is pegged against this, so both fluctuate depending upon the exchange rate.

From a posting at CollectSpace.com, 27 October 2007:

I believe they have gotten rid of [the performance contract] system for ISS, mainly since the crews are so cosmonaut and astronaut integrated now with the commanders alternating between Russian and American.

Concerning the pay rates though, there is still a difference. If a cosmonaut is living in Star City and launches to the ISS on a Soyuz, he gets his normal cosmonaut pay. If he goes to Houston and flies into space on the shuttle, then his pay from what I have read goes up to the level that US trained astronauts make for the duration of his duties in the US.

A 2010 article reported that cosmonauts get USD$130,000-$150,000 for a 6-month mission on board the International Space Station. The cosmonauts sign contracts for each mission, and the pay is different from their regular salary on Earth. In contrast, NASA astronauts receive an annual salary of up to up to $130,000 whether in space or not.

In this 2012 article from RIAN, Sergei Krikalyov says:

The job is demanding, but not a lucrative one, with the monthly salary for a top-grade cosmonaut standing at around 70,000 rubles ($USD2,300), Krikalev said. “It pays better to work as a porter,” he said, adding that one of the prime criteria for selection was motivation to go into space.

Rehabilitation

In the Soviet era, cosmonauts were sent to resorts on the Black Sea as part of their postflight rehabilitation. This practice ended after the collapse of the USSR, so other options had to be found. For a while, the Canary Islands were chosed, as described in this article from Friends & Partners in Space in 2001:

Russia spacemen to undergo rehabilitation on Canary isles

Tuesday, June 05, 2001 8:00 a.m. EST

Madrid, Jun 05, 2001 (Itar-Tass via COMTEX) – Russian spacefarers Talgat Musabayev and Yurii Baturin arrived in the Canary Islands to undergo their post-flight rehabilitation. They will recuperate under the observation of doctors on the island of Lanzarote, one of the most beautiful on “the archipelago of eternal spring”.

The autonomous government of the Canary Islands and the Moscow Medico-Biological Institute signed an agreement last year that Russian cosmonauts, returning from their missions, will undergo medical rehabilitation on the Canaries.

While drafting the agreement, the sides proceeded from the premise that the Canary Islands are not only a balmful climate but also top-class medical establishments which will help cosmonauts to recuperate fully their forces.

Russian cosmonauts Sergei Krikalyov and Yurii Gidzenko who spent two weeks on the island of Grand Canary, were the first to undergo recuperation there.

In the future, the Canary authorities are ready to receive cosmonauts from all countries, participating in the large-scale project of the International Space Station. (By Sergei Sereda)

See also “Cosmonauts head for the sun”.

After his Expedition 11 mission in 2005, Sergei Krikalyov said that he would spend part of his postflight rehabilitation in the spa city of Kislovodsk, Кисловодск, which lies in the North Caucasus region of Russia.

In October 2006 an agreement was signed between the Bashkiriya government prime minister Raphael Baydavletov and the chief of the Russian Yu.A. Gagarin Russian State Science Research Cosmonaut Training Centre (RGNII TsPK), Lieutenant-General Vasilii Tsibliev, for cosmonauts to conduct their rehabilitation at the Krasnousol’sk, «Красноусольск», sanatorium. Bashkortostan/Bashkiriya is a republic in the south of Russia, near the Ural Mountains.

According to Anik at NASASpaceflight.com, the cosmonauts can choose from a list of resorts which the GCTC has an agreement with.

From 2018, the city of Sochi, Krasnodar Territory (Сочи, Краснодарского края), was utilized for post-flight rehabilitation, in one of the sanatoriums there:

In 2018, Alexander Misurkin became the first cosmonaut in the new history of Russia undergoing rehabilitation in the resort city of Sochi. “Previously, my colleagues and I underwent rehabilitation mainly abroad,” said Alexander Alexandrovich in an interview in April 2018. “But here the level of comfort is just as good.”

An agreement on the organization of the post-flight rehabilitation of Russian cosmonauts in the resorts of the Krasnodar Territory was signed between the Ministry of Resorts of the Krasnodar Territory and the Yu.A. Cosmonaut Training Center. Gagarin in November 2018 at the International Tourism Forum SIFT in Sochi.

– TsPK news

Updated: 11/6/2020

Functional Cargo Block (FGB) Zarya

Zarya computer illustration (ESA)

Zarya («Заря», “dawn”), the first module of the ISS was launched on 20 November 1998 by a Proton-K rocket. It was developed by GKNPTs M.V. Khrunichev in Moscow, Russia under a subcontract to the Boeing company. The module is thus Russian-built and U.S.-funded. Construction was begun in 1994.

FGB Zarya initially provided flight control when it was docked with Unity, as well as electricity and fuel supplies. It had enough heptyl fuel (4.5 metric tonnes) to keep it in orbit for 430 days without refuelling.

After the Zvezda Service Module reached orbit, Zarya was relegated to back-up life support and used for storage, many of its functions taken over by the Service Module. The FGB has a lifetime of at least 15 years from its launch.

Full name: ФГБ – Функционально Грузовой Блок / FGB: Functional cargo block / Funktsional’no Gruzovoi Blok

Structure

Zarya is comprised of two main components:

An 800 mm-diameter hatchway connects the PGO and GA sections. The GA has 7.0 m3 of airtight volume; the PGO has 64.5 m3. Both segments are divided into an instrument zone (for various equipment) and habitable zone (for the crew). The instrument zone contains control systems and alarms, and is isolated from the habitable zone by panels.

The FGB has 90 storage lockers along its main corridor, in which supplies and various equipment are kept. Panel numbering in the PGO from forward – the GA, Pressurized Adapter – to aft (where Zvezda is attached):

Zarya has 3 docking assemblies. On the front end of the PGO (facing aft in the ISS layout) is located the active hybrid docking assembly, ASA-G, АСА-Г, and it is docked to the Zvezda Service Module. The rear end of the GA (forward in the ISS layout) is equipped with a passive androgynous docking assembly (АСПП, ASPP) which enables it to be docked with Pressurized Mating Adapter-1 of the U.S. segment. Also on the GA is a passive cone docking assembly perpendicular to the longitudinal X-axis of Zarya, where Soyuz and Progress ships can dock (i.e. it faces nadir or “down” towards Earth). The GA could be built with up to 5 docking ports, but only 2 were constructed for ISS use.

Three types of engines were used by Zarya:

The engines were decommissioned after Zvezda was launched and its systems activated.

Zarya’s fuel system stores and supplies fuel to the engines, and comprises a fuel (nitric tetraksid) and a combustible (unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine), stored in 16 fuel tanks (8 fuel, 8 oxidizer) and totalling 6100 kg. It can be resupplied via Progress cargo ships. It is divided into two subsystems: high pressure and low pressure. The latter supplies the low-thrust engines (DPS and DTS). 5 fuel and 5 oxidizer tanks are high-pressure; the remainder are low-pressure. Zarya was launched with partially-full tanks of 3800 kg.

Zarya derives its power from two solar arrays (СБ, SB), each 28 m2 (7 m long and 4 m wide) and covered on one side with glass-coated photoelectric converters; these were unfurled upon reaching orbit. The cells absorb 90% of sunlight on the side facing the sun, and 10% of reflected sunlight from Earth on their reverse sides. Power was transferred to 6 batteries in the power supply system (SES, СЭС) which, in the initial stages, supplied power to the FGB and Unity. Later after the arrival of Zvezda, Zarya converted power from the U.S. segment (124 V dc) for use in the Russian segment (28 V dc).

Zarya’s solar arrays were retracted in September 2007 to provide clearance for the U.S. segment radiators that would be unfurled later in the year. The starboard wing was folded in on 28/9 (14:09-14:26 UTC) and the port wing on 29/9 (12:59-13:14 UTC).

Zarya’s systems are divided into a support section and Station section. The support section helped Zarya function during autonomous flight and docking; the Station section helps the FGB interact with the rest of the ISS.

The support section comprises:

The Station section comprises:

Data tables

Zarya: fundamental technical characteristics
Mass in orbit, kg 20,040
Length of housing, mm 12,990
Maximum diameter, mm 4100
Volume of airtight sections, cubic meters 71.5
Spread of solar batteries, mm 24,400
Area of photovoltaic cells, meters squared 28
Average power of power supply, KVT/SUT 3
Fuel mass, kg 3800
Duration of functioning in orbit, years 15
Manufacturer Khrunichev
Zarya launch data
Designation 77KM No 17501
NASA designation 1A/R
Name ФГБ: Функционально Грузовой Блок
FGB: Functional cargo block
Funktsional’no Gruzovoi Blok
Launch vehicle Proton-K (No 395-01)
Launch site Launch complex 81/23, Baikonur Cosmodrome, Republic of Kazakhstan
Launch date 20 November 1998 at 06:40
Mission Launch of the first Russian ISS module (FGB). The U.S. Unity module was docked to it during the STS-88 mission

Diagrams

The following Zarya exterior diagrams are taken from the Space Station User’s Guide: NASA ISS EVA Operations Documents PDFs at Spaceref.com:

Gallery

Zarya from STS-88

A nadir (bottom) view of Zarya, taken during the STS-88 mission, 6 December 1998. The cylindrical Pressurized Adapter (GA, ГА) is at the bottom of the picture.

Dezhurov in Zarya

Vladimir Dezhurov (ISS-3) in Zarya’s main corridor, at the forward end. Port is on the left of the picture; starboard on the right. The storage lockers are visible.

Zarya with solar arrays retracted, October 2007

Zarya in October 2007 after its solar panels were retracted in September.

Links

Updated: 12/4/2019

Future spaceships

Russia has no shortage of future spaceship designs and proposals, but as always the problem is in getting funding! The PTK NP looks to be the most certain at the time of writing, while the Kliper, Parom and TKS have been abandoned, though elements of their designs may still be used.

Oryol

In August 2019, Roscosmos chief announced that the Federation spacecraft would be named Oryol (or Orel), Орёл (Eagle), honoring the first Russian military sailing vessel. It will be launched from Vostochniy Cosmodrome on an Angara rocket.

Oryol – a reusable manned transport spacecraft of a new generation, developed by RSC Energia. Its purpose is the delivery of people and goods beyond Earth orbit, including to the Moon. If necessary, a lightweight ship can be used for flights to space stations in low Earth orbit. The crew of the Oryol will number up to four people. In autonomous flight mode, the ship will be able to stay up to 30 days, and while flying as part of an orbital station, up to one year.

Digital rendering of Oryol Digital rendering of Oryol

Digital renderings of Oryol, from an Interview with Igor Khamits, 22/6/2020 (Roskosmos/Energiya)

Oryol news links

RSC Energia tests rappelling device for Orel CTS, June 5, 2020.

(Roskosmos website articles tagged with Oryol)

Rogozin denied information about the development of a new spacecraft

19/4/2020

MOSCOW, April 19 – RIA News. A new manned spacecraft for low-Earth orbit flights will not be created to replace Soyuz MS spacecraft, instead, astronauts will use the Oryol, “Eagle” (Орел) spacecraft intended for the lunar program, said Dmitry Rogozin, head of the Russian Space Agency. “In fact, there will be one and the same ship, just for delivery to the ISS (International Space Station) it will have less fueling. The only question is in the economy. How much will it cost,” Rogozin said on KP radio.

Earlier at the celebration of the 60th anniversary of the cosmonaut corps and the Cosmonaut Training Center, Rogozin announced the need to begin developing a new manned spacecraft. After that, a number of media reported that the new ship should be much lighter than the Oryol and Roscosmos in the coming days will begin to develop technical specifications for it. At the same time, the completion of the design of the orbital version of the Oryol was reported back in 2017.

The ship Oryol (formerly called the “Federation,” Федерация) has been developed since 2009. It is created primarily for flights to the Moon, and flights to orbital stations are considered for testing its systems. In September 2019, the press service of Roscosmos told RIA Novosti that Russia would build a universal version of the new manned spacecraft Orel instead of creating a separate version for flights to low Earth orbit and separately to the Moon. Russia is currently operating Soyuz spacecraft.

Cosmonauts will be in orbit on the Angara longer than Gagarin

03/03/2020

MOSCOW, Mar 3 – RIA Novosti. When launching from the Vostochny spaceport on the Angara rocket, the crew of the new Russian spacecraft Oryol will go into orbit longer than when launching from Baikonur in the Soyuz spacecraft on the Soyuz rocket, and longer than Yuri Gagarin flew into space, the materials of the Rocket and Space Corporation Energia, presented in Roskosmos, said (a copy is available to RIA Novosti).

According to the materials, 742 seconds will elapse from the launch of the Angara rocket to the separation of the Oryol ship from it at an altitude of 200 kilometers during normal flight. After that, the ship will have to fly autonomously, for example, to the International Space Station, as prescribed by the flight test program.

Now the astronauts get into orbit 200 km high on the Soyuz spacecraft in 528 seconds, that is, three and a half minutes faster. The difference is due to the fact that the mass of the Oryol when flying into low Earth orbit will be 20 tons, and the spacecraft Soyuz is 7.3 tons. In addition, the parameters of the missiles – the heavy Angara-A5 and the Soyuz-2 medium-class missiles – differ.

Roscosmos will spend eight billion rubles on the ship “Eagle”

03:08 01/13/2020 (updated: 09:06 01/13/2020)

MOSCOW, Jan 13 – RIA News. Roskosmos in 2021 plans to provide more than eight billion rubles for the serial production of a new generation of manned spacecraft “Eagle”, designed for flights on the ISS and the Moon. This follows from the materials posted on the public procurement website.

The space rocket Corporation Energia (an enterprise of Roscosmos) is engaged in production; in the coming years it is to build two ships.

One of them will become a full-size prototype for tests at the first launch on Angara-A5 heavy class carriers in 2023 and the Yenisei superheavy class in 2028. The second – a full reusable ship for flight tests and subsequent operation.

It is clarified that in 2021, Roskosmos intends to order the “creation of a second flight product” for 8.1 billion rubles.

The development of the first “Eagle”, which was previously called the “Federation”, has been ongoing for ten years. In December 2019, Energia requested an additional 18 billion rubles from Roskosmos. The CEO of the corporation Dmitry Rogozin explained that the money needed to create infrastructure at the Vostochny spaceport.

Earlier it was reported that the first test launch of the Orel ship will take place in August-September 2023 on the Angara-A5 rocket. In 2024, an unmanned flight is planned, in 2025, a manned flight to the ISS.

In 2026 and 2027, flights on the Angara should also take place, and in 2028 the first start on the Yenisei. Then the flight tests of the ship are planned to be completed and go to its operation. In 2029, the moon was preliminarily scheduled to fly, and in 2030, the Russian astronauts landed on its surface.

Some elements of Russia’s next-generation spacecraft already manufactured

MOSCOW, February 4 2020. /TASS/. Russia’s Rocket and Space Corporation Energia (RSC Energia) has already manufactured a number of elements for the next-generation spacecraft, Oryol, Roscosmos Director General Dmitry Rogozin told TASS in an interview.

"Certain elements have already been manufactured, including the bottom area and power lines," Rogozin said.

According to the official, RSC Energia is now preparing to launch the production of the new spacecraft, including by installing new manufacturing equipment and training its personnel to use it.

Oryol’s avionics, manipulators, computer systems and other elements are now undergoing tests.

Robot to become test pilot of Russia’s next-generation manned spacecraft

MOSCOW, September 12. /TASS/. The Android Technology Company is designing a robot that will test Russia’s next-generation partially reusable spacecraft Orel (Eagle), formerly known as Federatsiya, the company’s acting director Yevgeny Dudorov told TASS.

The official said his company was designing a “robotic system that will be the first to test the Federatsiya spacecraft.”

“If everything proceeds smoothly, it will be ready in 2022,” Dudorov said, adding that the robot will perform the first and second test flights of the spacecraft.

Besides, the robotic system can be “transformed for planetary missions,” including to the Moon and Mars.

The Federatsiya (Orel) spacecraft is being developed by the Energia Space Rocket Corporation. The spacecraft is designed to deliver humans and cargoes both into a near-Earth orbit and into deep space. The spacecraft will have a crew of up to 4 persons. It will be capable of operating in the mode of an autonomous flight for up to 30 days and for a term of a year as part of an orbital station.

The first uncrewed launch of Orel is scheduled for 2023, from the Vostochny space center in Russia’s Far East. No docking with the ISS is planned. During the second launch, due in 2024, the spacecraft will dock with the orbital outpost. Manned Orel missions are to begin in 2025.

Federation (PTK NP/PKNP)

PPTS concept art

The PTK NP (ПТК НП, пилотируемый транспортный корабль нового поколения) – New Generation Crew Transport Spaceship (NG CTS) is the latest proposal for a new Russian manned spaceship to replace the Soyuz.

Previously known as the Advanced Crew Transportation System (PPTS, ППТС: Перспективная Пилотируемая Транспортная Система), the PTK NP was initially to have be a spacecraft designed co-operatively between RKK Energiya and the European Space Agency. Initial discussions between the two agencies began in 2007.

Various studies and talks were conducted, but in October 2008 ESA ultimately decided not to go ahead with the project. ESA instead intended to focus on developing its own Advanced Re-entry Vehicle (ARV), based on an upgraded ATV service module.

In early 2009, Roscosmos decided to put out a tender for Russian companies to develop the PTK NP. The companies competing were Energiya and Khrunichev, both spaceship-builders. On 6 April, Roskosmos announced the winner was Energiya.

There are three prospective versions of the PTK NP spacecraft:

The initial name for the spacecraft is the Rus’, «Русь». A competition to formally name it was held in 2015; on 15 January 2016 Roskosmos announced the craft was to be named Federatsiya, «Федерация» (Federation).

On 15 March 2019 the director general of Russia’s state corporation Roscosmos, Dmitry Rogozin, announced that the spacecraft would be renamed with a “male name”:

BAIKONUR /Kazakhstan/, March 15. /TASS/. A new name has been invented for Russia’s new-generation spacecraft, currently known as Federatsiya (Federation), the director general of Russia’s state corporation Roscosmos, Dmitry Rogozin, told reporters on Friday.

“We have invented [a new name],” Rogozin said, without disclosing it.

Earlier, Rogozin announced that the corporation would give a “male name” to its new-generation partially-reusable manned spacecraft.

The Federatsiya spacecraft is being developed by the Energia Space Rocket Corporation. The spacecraft is designed to deliver humans and cargoes both into a near-Earth orbit and into deep space. The spacecraft will have a crew of up to 4 persons. It will be capable of operating in the mode of an autonomous flight for up to 30 days and for a term of a year as part of an orbital station.

As the Energia press office reported, the corporation has issued the main volume of working design documentation for holding autonomous and comprehensive trials. Energia has also launched work to make the mockups of the spacecraft’s compartments, including their structural design and onboard systems. The promising transport spacecraft is scheduled to enter flight trials in 2023.

The returnable section of the manned PTK NP will be a cone-shape similar to the Soyuz, and may land under parachutes, and/or with rocket assistance. It may be re-usable for future flights, for up to 10 missions over its 15-year lifespan. The PTK NP will use environmentally-friendly propellants (kerosene fuel and liquid oxygen oxidizer for the rocket’s first stage; liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen for the second).

The PTK NP was to be launched on the new Rus-M launcher, to be produced by the Samara Space Center, who came up with the preliminary design in 2010. The launcher was to replace the Soyuz-FG rocket, but was canceled in October 2011 due to cost. It is now planned to use the Angara-A5V and Angara-A5P heavy launchers.

It will have a new seat design called Cheget (after a Caucasus mountain). Unlike the Soyuz seat – which has to have a fitted custom molded liner for every passenger – the 27 kg Cheget will be adjustable for different sizes, saving on mission costs and time. It will still be manufactured by NPP Zvezda.

In June 2018 a model of the craft begun aerodynamic testing, and outfitting of the interior took place.

Federation news

Energia search results for “Federatsiya” on their website.

Previous projects

Kliper
«Клипер»

The Kliper (“Clipper”) was first announced at an ITAR-TASS press conference on 17 February 2004 by then-head of Rosaviakosmos, Yurii Koptev. Energiya had begun working on the design of this new spaceship in 2000. Lack of funding initially hindered further development. The Kliper was included in the Russian government space plan for 2005-2015.

The Kliper configuration underwent a few changes since it was announced. In 2005 a plan was announced for an orbital tug called “Parom” to dock with a lighter Kliper version (both launched on a smaller booster than the proposed Soyuz-3 rocket) and then tow it to the ISS.

On 10 June 2005 ESA Director Genereal Jean-Jacques Dordain met with Anatoly Perminov, Head of the Federal Space Agency, to discuss future ESA-Russia space co-operation in the areas of Human Spaceflight, Microgravity and Exploration; Launchers; Telecommunications, Navigation, and Earth Observation. Regarding Kliper, it was agreed to develop a joint plan of work, to be presented at the ESA Ministerial Council in December 2005. At the December meeting, ESA government ministers initially declined the proposal to participate in the Kliper program (a 2-year research effort costing 51 million euros – $59.8 million), but did not reject it outright.

Such co-operation would be advantageous to both organizations, sharing the funding and development costs and giving ESA additional access to space. The Kliper could be launched from Russian facilities and the European space port in Kourou, French Guiana.

On 18 January 2006 Roskosmos put out a tender for the development of the Kliper, to be decided between the companies RKK Energiya, GKNPTs Khrunichev and NPO Molniya. The results were initially to be announced in the first half of February, but delayed this to April, the reason given being financial, safety and delivery data in bids. Energiya remained the favorite for the contract.

But in July Anatolii Perminov announced that Roskosmos was suspending the tender and instead would concentrate on developing a manned Soyuz-style space system first; a vehicle that would be capable of lunar circumnavigation flights using a Soyuz spaceship and a habitation module based on the Kliper’s cabin module. Energiya was selected to lead this development; it would continue to develop the Kliper in the meantime, though at a slower pace with less funding. Its plan was to develop Kliper by 2015 and field-test it in 2016.

The-then President of Energiya, Nikolai Sevastyanov, was the main proponent of Kliper, but the design proved too ambitious and expensive, and he was ousted as President, and Kliper was abandoned.

Energiya Kliper diagram, February 2006

Energiya Kliper computer concept illustration, February 2006

Technical data

The Kliper would carry 2 pilots and up to 4 passengers. It would have a launch escape system similar to that of the Soyuz spacecraft.

It was of an aerodynamic lifting-body-type design and could thus conduct gliding maneuvers during re-entry (up to 500 km either side of its ground track), unlike the ballistic Soyuz Descent Module. Thermal protection systems were derived from both the Buran and Soyuz. It had a length of 10 meters and maximum diameter of 3.6 meters. The propulsion system is UDMH (Unsymmetric Dimethyl Hydrazine, propellant fuel) and Nitrogen Tetroxide (N2O4, an oxidizer).

Two design modifications were possible:

  1. Load-carrying hull. This would enable the Kliper to land on any flat surface using its 3 parachutes, similar to the Soyuz today.
  2. An aircraft-type hull (winged version). This lifting-body design, developed with the OKB Sukhoi design bureau, would limit the Kliper to landing on a runway like the Space Shuttle, but increase its gliding range from 500 km to 2000 km.

The inner crew compartment could be slotted inside either design, depending upon the flight requirements.

The Kliper was to be partly reusable, with a detachable front re-entry capsule which landed with the aid of three parachutes and solid-propellant engines. The habitation module (OA) was mounted behind the re-entry capsule and contained docking hardware and life-support systems. Surrounding this was the PAO which contained power supplies (power supplied by two solar panels) and orbital maneuvering systems. Both OA and PAO were to bejettisoned on re-entry to the atmosphere.

Reuse after each flight:

Replace after each flight:

The estimated development cost of the Kliper was 10 billion rubles.

There were currently three possible launch rockets proposed:

  1. Onega, a proposed new generation rocket from Energiya. It is a modified Soyuz rocket, and would be launched from a Plesetsk launch pad.
  2. The Angara booster rocket, another new-generation rocket under development.
  3. The Ukrainian Zenit, launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan.

Kliper could even possibly have been launched from other pads, such as the ESA pad in Kourou, French Guiana.

Kliper cutaway diagram (Novosti Kosmonavtiki)

Kliper cutaway diagram. Top descriptions, left to right:

Bottom descriptions, left to right:

Some Kliper technical data, in English and Russian:

Kliper piloted spacecraft
Mass, kilograms 13,000
• Re-entry module, mass 8800
• Habitation module, mass 4200
Crew number 6
Cargo mass, kg
• Launched 500
• Returned 500
• Moved away 200
Volume of flight deck, m3 20
Time of autonomous flight, days 5
Maximum time spent docked to orbital station, days 360
G-force loads, regular descent profile 2.5
Carrier-rocket Zenit-2SLB
«Клипер» пилотируемый космический корабль
Масса, кг, в т. ч. 13,000
• возвращаемый аппарат 8800
• агрегатно-бытовой отсек 4200
Колическво членов экипажа, чел. 6
Масса грузов, кг
• доставляемых 500
• возвращаемых 500
• удаляемых 200
Объем кабины экипажа, м3 20
Время автономного полека, сут. 5
Время нахождения в составе орбитальной станции, сут. 360
Перегрузки при штатном спуске, ед. 2.5
Ракета-носитель «Зенит-2SLБ»

Parom
«Паром»

Parom orbital tug (Energiya)

The Parom (“Ferry”) was a proposed reusable replacement for the Progress cargo ship, and would also serve as an unmanned orbital tug for the Kliper spaceship. The Parom is a different concept to the Progress. It would be launched into orbit and wait near the Space Station for cargo containers to be launched later; these containers would not need the complex guidance systems currently used by the Progress. The containers would dock with the Parom, which would in turn guide and propel itself to dock with the ISS. The Parom has docking ports at each end, and fuel transfer lines so that fuel can be transferred through it from the cargo container to the Station. It could also propel a payload into a higher orbit, or take a waste container down to the atmosphere to be incinerated, and head up back to orbit after releasing this. The 6800 kg Parom’s engines could handle cargo up to 27 215 kg.

It was proposed that the Parom could be used to tow a lighter version of the Kliper to the ISS. The reason for this was so that both ships could be launched on a version of the existing Soyuz-2 rocket (designated Soyuz-2-3), rather than a modified Soyuz-3, Zenit-2 or not-yet-developed Angara-2. The Soyuz-2-3 could also be launched from Europe’s Spaceport in French Guiana; the equatorial location means that more payload could be carried into orbit (the Earth rotates faster at the Equator and acts as a slingshot to help propel a spacecraft into orbit).

Cargo container (Energiya)

TKS
ТКС

The TKS (Транспортный корабль снабжения, Transportniy Korabl Snabzheniya, transport supply ship) was a proposed manned spaceship by the Khrunichev design bureau, based on the original TKS series developed from the 1960s. It would carry up to 6 crew and 6350 kg of cargo to Low Earth Orbit, and be used up to 10 times. Its launch vehicle would be the Angara A3M rocket. The TKS vaguely resembled the Apollo capsule in shape. For the January 2006 tender Khrunichev put forward several versions of the basic TKS (manned and unmanned) for consideration, but with the cancellation of the tender in July, the status of the TKS is unknown.

Links

Updated: 24/6/2020

Gidrolab training

Neutral buoyancy is the only effective means of simulating weightlessness on Earth for extended periods. Russian spacesuit training takes place at the Vykhod, Выход (“Exit”) Training Facility in the Cosmonaut Training Center at Zvyozdnyi Gorodok, Star Town. This facility was first opened on 28 January, 1980.

Before underwater training, the cosmonauts first partake in classroom lectures as they learn about the Orlan spacesuit’s systems.

They also familiarize themselves with wearing an Orlan in the Egress Simulator. This Orlan-T (training) suit is suspended by an overhead wire-and-pulley system, and is pressurized to the same pressure as it would be in the vacuum of space. Here the cosmonauts learn basic Orlan emergency procedures and how to operate the airlocks in normal and emergency situations.

During the final week of training, cosmonauts are given SCUBA diving practise in the Hydrolab to assess their diving skills and learn emergency procedures for coping with an unconscious diver.

Gidrolaboratoriya

The Russian Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory is called the Gidrolaboratoriya, Гидролаборатория (GL) – Hydrolaboratory.

The circular GL has 45 windows set in its sides, each with a diameter of 0.3 meters, and located at three different levels. The spacewalk training can be filmed and photographed through these windows. The lighting system lamps emit light of a particular spectrum and enable night and day conditions to be simulated. The swimming pool itself is filled with specially-treated water which aids clear viewing of the training. The water has a lower chlorine level than an average swimming pool, both to prevent chlorine poisoning and to save the equipment in the water from corrosion.

Mock-ups of space complexes provide a realistic training environment; these currently are modules of the International Space Station. Using platforms (which can support up to 15.4 tons), these can be lowered into and raised from the pool. The mock-ups are exact replicas of the real modules’ exteriors.

Air and water supplies facilities support those using the Orlan-GN spacesuits. Two lifting cranes move those in the spacesuits to and from the pool (the 100 kg suits are too heavy to move in unaided). Training hours are usually between 9 a.m. to 2 p.m. Training sessions can last for up to 7 hours, though preferably not longer as the SCUBA divers could get cold.

The Orlan spacesuits are connected to the control room by a 50-meter umbilical cable, through which water, air and power are provided. It also carries telemetry from the suits to those monitoring from the control room.

The SCUBA divers who assist the spacesuited trainees have their own support facilities: their diving equipment and the PDK-2U, ПДК-2У decompression chamber, which simulates underwater submersion down to 100 m (10 atmospheres). There are two main categories of divers: professional Navy warrant officers, and TsPK Air Force officers, some being cosmonaut-candidates gaining spacewalk simulator experience.

Safety is a priority during a training session. At least seven divers will be in the water with the Orlan-suited trainees to assure safety. In case of an emergency, each trainee can be pulled out of the water in four minutes at most.

A hyperbaric oxygen complex (гипербарической оксигенации – giperbaricheskoi oksigenatsii [ГБО]) provides medical support for the spacesuit wearers and SCUBA divers. It is comprised of two single-seat medical altitude chambers. An emergency ambulance is also on standby.

Tasks that can be simulated during training include:

The U.S. and Russian training methods have differed in philosophy: NASA spacewalkers usually train for carefully-planned specific tasks that they will need for a short-term Shuttle mission. They are in constant contact with Mission Control, so they can quickly get advice on a task if needed. Russian spacewalkers train in a general spacewalk methodology, so they can draw on this knowledge for unexpected situations arising during a mission. This training is more suited to long-duration flights. On Mir, they were also out of contact with TsUP for long periods during orbits, so they needed to be more self-reliant. Both training philosophies complement each other, and are utilized for the ISS.

As noted below, the Gidrolab underwent maintenance in 2014 and came back into use in 2020:

“The hydrolaboratory of the Cosmonaut Training Center named after Yu.A. Gagarin has practically been restored. Scuba divers prepare submerged mock-up of Multifunctional Laboratory Module #МЛМ to tests involving astronauts. They will begin on April 24 with the participation of Hero of Russia Sergei Ryzhikov. After #MLM will be sent to #ISS, it will take several exits of our astronauts at once to connect different systems. Therefore, to minimize risks, our future crew is working out all operations with #MLM in the hydro lab in Star City.” (Via Dimitrii Rogozin’s Twitter feed)

Vykhod zero-gravity simulator

There are two facilities that enable the simulation of zero-gravity by suspending spacesuit wearers from pulleys in the ceiling. The first-built facility was designated Vykhod-1, Выход-1. This was only a small room that could accommodate two specialists and a cosmonaut, and had two spacesuits available.

The second facility, Vykhod-2, was constructed in 2001 for ISS training, specifically for egressing/ingressing the Pirs docking compartment hatches. There are two overhead cranes (MOST-1 & -2, МОСТ-1 & -2) and a twin boom suspension system. The Orlan spacesuits used are the Orlan-T model.

From a NASASpaceflight.com forum post by B. Hendrickx on 18/8/2017:

It may be interesting to note that the cosmonauts have not done any underwater training for this EVA for the simple reason that the neutral buoyancy facility at Star City has been out of action for maintenance since late 2014. The sole way of simulating EVAs now is to use a simulator called Vykhod-2 (Egress-2), which was introduced in 2002. Here’s a video showing cosmonaut Oleg Artemyev undergoing training in the simulator.

Gallery

Orlan classroom lesson (JAXA)

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency trainees learning about the Orlan spacesuit in the classroom.

Training in the Egress Simulator (JAXA)

JAXA trainees dangle rather precariously as they train in the Egress Simulator wearing Orlan-T spacesuits.

Training in hydrolab (Atlas Aerospace)

Underwater view of the cosmonauts and assistant divers through the Hydrolab windows.

Gidrolab, 14/4/2020

Photo of the Gidrolaboratory after restoration, 14 April 2020.

Links

Updated: 20/4/2020

Personal hygiene

Over the decades of long-duration flight in the Russian space program, various specialized items of clothing and hygiene have been developed to ensure the comfort of those living on board a space station. Personal hygiene items are described on this page.

Researchers at the Russian Institute of Medical-Biological Problems consider hygiene as a major contributor towards psychological comfort, and devised various products to enable this.

People shed microscopic skin particles continuously on Earth, and this process is accelerated in zero-gravity (up to 3 grams of skin can be shed daily, and 5000 cells of epithelium when changing clothes. Something not to dwell upon too much). People also sweat more in orbit.

Wet towel kit

Keeping clean in orbit requires somewhat different tactics to what people are used to on Earth. Experiments with shower devices in the past on the Salyut stations and Mir proved impractical; setting up the shower took a lot of time and water does not flow but breaks into droplets and adheres to the skin, and a cosmonaut can choke on the water droplets. Water on a space station is also a scarce commodity to be preserved whenever possible. So wet fabric towels and napkins, treated with a special disinfecting lotion, are utilized instead. These are apparently quite effective. The towels are fabric rather than paper, as the latter material could introduce dust particles into the Station atmosphere.

People can become oversensitive to strong odors in space, so no products that emit these are brought onboard. There are no alcohol-based personal hygiene products; instead, the wet towels have a mild blended odor of almond and green apples. Also, as humidity in the Station’s atmosphere is recycled, any alcohol in the air would be recycled as pure vodka, not water!

Cleaning teeth is also important; salivation is reduced in zero-g and saliva becomes more concentrated. This can lead to a build-up of tartar. So a menthol-tasting chewing gum is provided (an off-the-shelf brand) to be chewed after each meal. Toothpaste is also used. An Oral Cavity Hygiene Kit includes a rubber finger cover that is used to massage the gums.

Women are allowed to take some of their personal cosmetics on board if they wish, such as lipstick and eyeshadow.

Men can shave using a manual or electric razor. The latter is modified to catch hair so it doesn’t float all over the place. (Mark Shuttleworth mentioned in one of his ISS training diaries that the ISS-approved manual razor was the Gillette Sensor Excel.)

For NASA shuttle flights, items that can be bought commercially on Earth are used. These tend to be used with water; for the short-term Shuttle missions this is not a concern.

Hair is kept clean with an alcohol-free shampoo called “Aelita,” «Аелита». It is applied with a napkin and rubbed into the hair.

Hygiene items are packed into a kit called “Komfort,” «Комфорт». This is a blue, portfolio-like bag weighing about 1.1 kg with Velcro strips for attaching it to the walls of the Station. There are three designations of Komfort:

Below are extracts from the Service Module Medical Operations, Book 1, issued by Energiya in 2000. The designations for the Komfort kit are a bit different to that mentioned above (perhaps 1M is the same as 2).

Komfort personal hygiene set

Komfort 1-M diagram

Note: Komfort-1M, «Комфорт 1-М» set is made up with account of crewmember’s personal features.

Komfort-1M set contents (for individual use):

Komfort-3 set contents (for replenishment of Komfort-1M set):

For brushing teeth, use toothpaste and Oral Cavity Hygiene kit

Right: open View of Komfort-1M Personal Hygiene Set

Aelita hygiene set

Purpose: Aelita, «Аелита» set is used for hair care

Contents of Aelita hygiene set:

Personal hygiene articles

Links

ISS communications

During the early days of the ISS, the Russian communication system was the only one available. With the arrival of the U.S. modules, the main system used is the American one: S-band (audio) and the higher-rate Ku-band (audio and video). Russia still prefers to use its own system, though, for up- and downlinking experiment data, and controlling Progress and Soyuz flights. TsUP can utilize the NASA communications systems via a phone link between the two control centers.

Communications can essentially be divided into two types: internal (within the modules) and external (air-to-ground and vice versa, as well as during spacewalks and between spaceships). All are controlled via the «Восход-М» СТТС, Voskhod-M STTS, Telephone-Telegraph Signal System, whose antennae are on the outside of Zvezda. (Some of this I am not quite sure about, or have sketchy information on.)

Internal

The communication system between the Russian modules is analog; the equivalent U.S. system is digital. The Russian Audio Interface Unit in Destiny, the U.S. Lab module, enables 2-way comm between both audio systems (converts Russian copper analog data to IAS fiber optical digital data, and back). There are six STTS PAs, comm panels, throughout Zvezda. There is another RAIU in Node 3, the Tranquility module , but it is not being used.

External

Communications with TsUP are through the VHF (Very High Frequency)-1 «Регул», Regul radio link. They are usually channeled through Russian ground stations, which are only available for a portion of each orbit, from around 5 minutes to 20 minutes depending upon the ground track of a particular pass. (This varies due to orbit precession: the ISS orbits eastward, and the Earth is also turning eastward. The ISS, at an average height of 400 km, takes around 92 minutes. At this height, the ISS’s ground track moves backwards, or westwards, by 22.5 degrees each pass.) A communications relay satellite called «Молния», Molniya is sometimes available to augment comm, but channels on this are shared with the Russian military.

TsUP do not have their own dedicated satellites like NASA’s 3 TDRS (Tracking and Data Relay System) satellites. The original plan was to replenish the Luch, «Луч» satellite relay network that provided communications to the Mir space station and there was one satellite that had been kept in storage ready for launch. But upon inspection it was found that it was damaged beyond repair. The Lira antenna was flown in any case (it is the large projection at the rear of Zvezda that looks like a giant lollipop – see photo below), but the radio system was not taken into orbit.

According to a Energiya document from the Space Ops. 2010 conference:

In 2012 we will launch a new Russian communication Satellite “Louch-5A”. After that we will stop using American communication recourses. This satellite will have S- and Ku-band for TV, telemetry and command communication capability. In future we hope to have two communication satellites “Louch-5A,” “Louch-5B”. Longitude of first “Louch-5A” is 16º West, second “Louch-5B” is 95º East.

For spacewalks (VKD, ВКД), each Orlan spacesuit has a «Транзит-А», Tranzit-A system, contained in the «Корона», Korona radio set. This relays radio signals to the Tranzit-B telemetry monitoring hardware in Zvezda; the latter converts the data into a form that can interface with Zvezda’s БИТС-2-12, BITS-2-12 system, which relays signals to TsUP and back when in range of ground stations. Alternatively, comm can be transmitted through an umbilical attached to the spacesuit. Spacewalkers can also talk directly to engineers in TsUP via UHF (Ultra-High Frequency), though there is some interference from other users on Earth (air traffic control, ham radio, etc.). When not in the range of Russian sites, communications can also be routed through the U.S. S-band (both control centers are permanently linked).

Television and video are similarly up- or downlinked via ground stations. Signals are SECAM/PAL (which are incompatible with the American NTSC system). The equivalent of the U.S. Ku-band (voice and video) is the «Лира», Lira system.

Ship-to-ship communications are by UHF. The «Курс», Kurs antenna (mounted on the rear of Zvezda) transmits approach-and-docking radio signals between the Russian segment and an approaching or undocking Progress supply ship or Soyuz. The ТОРУ, TORU equipment in Zvezda’s Work Compartment enables a crewmember to remotely monitor and (if necessary) take over the automated Progress docking; a TV camera mounted on the Progress provides him with visual input.

An extract from Chris van den Berg’s ISSCOM 038 (25 August 2003):

Communications: Mainly these are handled on the American Ku- and S-bands so via the American TDRS-es. An amount of traffic from and into the Russian segment is routed via the Russian systems Regul and Voskhod-M (so VHF-1 on 143.625 mc). Originally Regul had been designed to be used with the old Russian geostationary comm. satellites of the Luch-type (so the Altairs). Such satellites are no longer operational, but Regul still has some alternatives. Regul can communicate directly with a number of Russian tracking stations. For telemetry the Russian comm. satellites Molniya can be used. 2 Transponders of these satellites are allocated for the handling of telemetry traffic directly from the Service Module Zvezda. The orbit of this type of satellite is elliptical with a perigee of approx. 400 KM and an apogee of approx. 40,000 KM. To make communications between Zvezda and Molniya possible a radio bearing procedure is necessary. In fact the main purpose of the Molniya is the relay of traffic like TV, Radio, etc. via the system Orbita to enable the Russians to cover the most northern parts of the Russian territory. These satellites are also used for the communications between point-to-point stations, for instance between Russian tracking stations for manned space flight and MCC-M (TsUP-M). (There is no need for the tracking station Shcholkovo to use Molniya due to the short distance with TsUP and the existing line network.)

Telemetry signals of the so called BITS-2 system can also be transmitted directly to the tracking stations (NIP-s). Regularly these transmissions can be monitored during passes of the ISS within reach of the Netherlands. (I suppose that this monitoring also is possible in some regions of the U.S.A. for some American tracking stations are able to receive signals like that.) The main stream of the Zvezda module transmits on 630.125 mc, the secondary stream on 628.125 mc. The main stream of the FGB (Zarya module) transmits on 633.850 mc.

Diagrams

Communications (194 KB). Page illustration from the Reference Guide to the International Space Station PDF.

Gallery

Luch antenna on rear of Zvezda

The arrow in the photo points to the Luch, Луч antenna on the aft end of Zvezda.

Updated: 19/10/2010

ISS computers

The ISS is the most computerized spacecraft yet in orbit.

Laptops

The crew interact with the onboard systems via laptops, categorized into the Portable Computer System (PCS) and Station Support Computer (SSC).

The PCS laptops provide the interface with the ship’s computer systems and runs the Solaris operating system. The SSC are used for office and personal tasks, and run a version of Windows.

Computers used in both sections are IBM ThinkPad laptops.

The ThinkPads initially on board were the 760XD model in the U.S. segment, and 760ED in the Russian segment. It has a Pentium 166 processor with 64 MB RAM, Windows 98 Second Edition and nnternet Explorer 5.5

The 760ED interfaces with Zvezda’s Control Post computer/Data Management System through an Ethernet Local Area Network, which is connected to other Russian modules and the laptops in the U.S. segment. Commands can thus be issued from any laptop in the Station.

Later in 2003, the so-called Next-Generation Laptop (an IBM ThinkPad A31P) was introduced in the American segment. This has a Pentium 4 processor and runs Windows 2000. Its expansion tray does not accept ISA cards, so the earlier 760XDs remain in use while cards are redesigned for the A31P.

The keyboards have both English and Cyrillic letters.

Four Wiener Power laptops were additionally used at Zvezda’s Command Post (TsP, ЦП) as an interface for controlling segment operations, but are being replaced by the A31P, brought up on Progress M-58 in 2006, though one WP will be kept in use as a server.

The 14 November 2007 ISS Daily Report briefly listed the Russian segment laptops:

In the RS, there are currently seven Russian computers in use: RSS1, RSS2, RSK1, RSE1, RSE-Med, TP2, and Laptop3.

This extract from Mark Shuttleworth’s training diaries at African in Space describes some of the computer software:

Lost Property for the 21st century

January 29, 2002: – No problems in Houston today. We spent the morning learning about some of the software that is installed on the US laptops in the ISS. The software is designed to help the astronauts coordinate their day, and their equipment.

The first piece of software tracks timetabling for the crew. It gives each crew member a day plan, together with supplemental information such as day/night times, S-band, Ku-band and Russian comms, procedures, equipment manifests etc. This makes it a lot easier to know what to do when. We’ll probably use this in combination with a PDA to tell me when to prepare for comms slots, when to be ready for camera work and earth observation, and when to setup and work on the science experiments.

The second piece of software, though, is a bit of a [night]mare. It’s the equipment tracking software, and it’s supposed to keep track of every plug, cap, adapter, wire, bolt, ration, camera, lens, etc on the station. There are 16,000 items in the database, the station is nearly 100 m long and packed with storage cabins, each of which is packed with STUFF. So losing track of something is very easy. In theory, this piece of software is supposed to tell us exactly where to find something, or where to put something. Everything that we move has to be logged in here.

But unfortunately, it is ssssslllllllloooooooowwwwwww. Yuri says it drove him, Shep and Sergei absolutely nuts when they were up there for increment 1. I can believe it. It took about 7 minutes just to start the app, and sometimes two or three minutes to get anything logged into the system. The handheld tracking devices that are supposed to make it easier don’t help at all.

I think this may have to do with the fact that they are running on Pentium 166 machines with 64 MB RAM, Win 98 SE, IE 5.5, and the app is a big Java app. No wonder the system grinds to a halt regularly. The fileserver has the same specs but runs NT 4. Ouch. Hopefully we’ll be able to leave the crew a present of a nice fast computer, so at least one crewmember will have rapid access to the system.

Internet access

Previous to 2010, there was no regular Internet access on the ISS as it required high bandwidth. The Ku-band is the the high-bandwidth channel, but priority was reserved for data transfers such as from scientific experiments and general housekeeping (such as software upgrades from Mission Control).

In December 2009 the ISS began to get some access at last (albeit experimental) – 3/12/2009 On-Orbit Report:

At ~11:05 a.m. EST, Jeff Williams conducted a one-hour video-based training session on the exciting new CSL (Crew Support Local Area Network) capabilities and hardware. [Crew Support LAN Phase 1 will provide live Internet access to the ISS crew (initially only USOS crewmembers) as safely, securely and reliably as possible whenever Ku-band is available. The access will be accomplished by connecting to a remote desktop session on a remote server (Citrix server) located on the ground, which hosts the virtual desktops, and the crew sees only an image of the remote desktop which does the Internet surfing. Video and audio can be received (but may be choppy or sometimes out of sync). The CSL, a virtual network completely separate from the station-wide Ops LAN, will use existing IBM A31p laptops and existing network hardware. Initially, there will be only one CSL laptop (Client 1) and one CSL server (CREWLAN SERVER) both set up in Node-2. After the initial testing, the CSL will be expanded to include up to four clients.]

The new system officially came online in mid-January 2010.

This personal Web access, called the Crew Support LAN, takes advantage of existing communication links to and from the station and gives astronauts the ability to browse and use the Web. The system will provide astronauts with direct private communications to enhance their quality of life during long-duration missions by helping to ease the isolation associated with life in a closed environment. During periods when the station is actively communicating with the ground using high-speed Ku-band communications, the crew will have remote access to the Internet via a ground computer. The crew will view the desktop of the ground computer using an onboard laptop and interact remotely with their keyboard touchpad.

– “NASA Extends the World Wide Web Out Into Space,” NASA Media Advisory, 22/1/2010

The crew can use email as well; emails are stored and forwarded to a NASA server on Earth, and vice-versa. The two servers exchange the emails in batches three times a day. Before a crewperson launches, they have to give NASA a list of the email addresses they want to receive mail from, and thus they can only receive mail from the people on this list. Anousheh Ansari updated her online blog by this method (sending entries via email).

Crews can also use Internet Phone (Voice over IP) to hold teleconferences; the secure link is via the NASA TDRSS satellites.

Data Management System

The Service Module, Zvezda, has a common onboard control complex (БКУ, BKU). This European-Russian designed system, linked by integrated control algorithms, is a network that co-ordinates all the Russian segment’s systems to perform the Station’s tasks. The БКУ’s components are:

The БКУ also interacts with the onboard data telemetry system and radio technical facilities.

The European Space Agency and Energiya jointly developed the Russian segment’s БКУ (or Data Management System, DMS, as ESA calls it). This is described on a page at the ESA website:

The DMS-R, installed in the Russian Service Module Zvezda, is the set of on-board computers, their avionics and software that provide for the overall control, mission and failure management of the entire Russian segment of the ISS.

The DMS-R performs functions such as:

The ESA-provided on board units are:

The DMS-R has been developed by ESA with an industrial team lead by ASTRIUM (Bremen, Germany).

The application software for the on-board computers has been developed by the Russian Zvezda contractor, RSC Energiya, using an ESA-provided ground system – the hardware and software environment supporting software design, development, simulation, test and validation.

The Russian Service Module, with the ESA-developed D-MSR, was successfully launched in July 2000, and is working nominally since then.

The Russian segment has several “modes” under which it operates, depending upon the situation:

  1. Standard. This supports such RS modes as fuel transfer (from Progress to storage tanks in Zvezda) and gyrodine spin-up modes (the gyrodines keep the RS and ISS stabilized).
  2. Reboost (orbit correction by means of Progress or Zvezda thrusters).
  3. Proximity operations (docking, undocking, redocking).
  4. ВКД/EVAs (spacewalks).
  5. Microgravity. Support of onboard experiments and general daily life.
  6. Survival. This ISS mode supports the Russian Segment initial attitude mode so as to provide normal power supply.
  7. Assured safe crew rescue. In the event of depressurization of the RS, fire or toxins released into the atmosphere.

From the ISS Reference:

Data bus architecture consists of:

Diagrams

Gallery

Sergei & Yurii using laptop (NASA)

Sergei Krikalyov and Yurii Gidzenko (ISS-1) input data into a Wiener Power computer.

JSC-ISS teleconference (NASA)

Screenshot of a teleconference between JSC and the ISS, using Voice over Internet Protocol (Internet Phone). The software used is Microsoft NetMeeting.

Links

ISS docking systems

The ISS has four types of docking systems; this page briefly describes the three Russian ones. There are four total active docking ports for Russian craft; the rear one at Zvezda can also take ESA’s ATV.

Probe-and-drogue

Probe-and-drogue

The “classic” probe-and-cone (or probe-and-drogue) docking system is used on the Soyuz and Progress ships. The ships carry the active “probe” section which dock to the receptive cone or drogue part attached to the module. The active part (АСА, ASA) has a probe (СШ, SSh) with a capture latch at the tip, and alignment pins, hooks, and shock absorbers. The probe fits into the drogue of the receiving cone (СК, SK) on the passive docking assembly (ПСА, PSA). The capture latch is activated after the probe enters the drogue, then the shock absorbers dampen out any vibrations. This phase is the “soft dock”. The probe retracts, bringing the two halves together and the hooks on the ASA mate it with the structural ring on the PSA. It is “hard docked” at this point. A one-hour leak check is completed by the crew before hatches are opened. The crew later remove the probe-and-cone docking system (StM) in the Progress to clear the passage for cargo transfer operations.

This system is used on the rear port of Zvezda, and the nadir ports of Zarya and Pirs.

Hybrid

A larger and stronger version of the classic system, the Hybrid Docking System, is used to join the Russian modules together. It has more hooks, a larger diameter hatch, and a larger structural ring to withstand the increased forces on the joints between the docked modules. The larger hatch also means that larger cargo can be passed through.

APDS

APAS

The Androgynous Peripheral Docking System (APDS) has its origins in the Apollo-Soyuz program, and a version (Androgynous Peripheral Docking System, APDS-89) was used for the Shuttle-Mir program (the bright orange docking port was originally intended to enable the Buran orbiter to dock to Mir). Each APDS is identical and can act as the passive or active half. The system can dock active-to-active or active-to-passive, but not passive-to-passive. The front port of Zarya has the APDS system; it is docked with Pressurized Mating Adapter-1 (PMA-1). PMA-2 and PMA-3 also have an APDS to which the Space Shuttle can dock.

The Russian name is АСПП, Агрегат Стыковочный Пассивный Периферийный – ASPP, peripheral passive docking assembly

International Docking Standard

In October 2010 the ISS partners met to decide upon an international docking standard for government space agencies and commercial companies. The system will be developed from the Androgynous Peripheral Docking System, and soft-capture features used by NASA and ESA.

Gallery

Progress M-55 about to dock

Close-up view of the docking cone of Progress M-55/20P as it is about to dock.

Forward docking port of Zvezda

View of the forward hybrid docking port (passive) of Zvezda while under construction on 1 October 1997.

APAS of PMA-2 in the cargo bay of STS-108

APDS of PMA-2 in the cargo bay of STS-108.

Links

Updated: 29/7/2011

Life support comparisons

The primary life support systems are located in the Service Module, Zvezda, «Звезда» (the FGB, Zarya, provided backup capabilites until Zvezda was in orbit). There are 5 main components: atmospheric control, water supply, food supply, sanitation equipment, fire detection and suppression. All are monitored and controlled by the on-board computer system, the laptops providing a crew interface with these.

The life support system is divided into two components: Atmosphere Revitalization, СОГС, SOGS; and human life support, СОЖ, SOZh – the latter being food, water and sanitation. The information is mainly derived from the LSS ISS; I have linked to more detailed descriptions there in places.

The two sections below, Design Philosophies and RS ECLS Capabilities, are extracted from Living Together in Space: The Design and Operation of the Life Support Systems on the International Space Station, P.O. Wieland, NASA, January 1998.

Design philosophies

The basic philosophies of design that are used by the United States and Russia have some significant differences that must be understood to ensure that the different ECLS systems are compatible. In addition, differences in terminology can lead to confusion. For example, the word “monitor” may be translated into Russian as “control” when the intended meaning is “measure.”

For example, the U.S. approach to ensuring that a capability is provided tends toward using redundant equipment, i.e., having two identical units with one used only in an emergency or operating both at less than their full capability. This leads to having two CO2 removal units, for example, with one in the Hab and one in the Lab, each of which can accommodate the entire normal load. There are exceptions to this approach, e.g., there is only one water processor and one commode. In comparison, the Russian approach is to have an alternative backup rather than a redundant unit, e.g., for oxygen supply if the Elektron O2 generator fails, the backup is the SFOG and stored O2 (gas, liquid, or solid form) for use until a replacement unit is delivered. This method works because of the regular resupply missions. Again, there are exceptions, e.g., there are two fans in the FGB, one of which is for redundancy.

The basic design philosophy used for designing the U.S. ECLS system includes:

The failure tolerance for many of the ECLSS functions is zero (i.e., the function is lost when the equipment fails) at the module level. Exceptions to this are intermodule ventilation and intramodule ventilation, heat collection and distribution, and response to hazardous atmosphere, which must be single-failure tolerant. However, for the complete ISS, there is redundancy for critical functions.

Another example of the effect of different philosophies is the design of the OGA. The United States and Russia both use electrolysis of water as the basic technique, but there are significant design differences. The U.S. approach is to design hardware to be serviceable, so components are designed as orbital replaceable units (ORU) and are accessible for replacement. Safety concerns due to the presence of hydrogen (H2) as an electrolysis byproduct were dealt with by ensuring that the quantities of combustible gases present are negligible. The Russian approach does not require that components be individually replaceable. They also use a different approach to ensuring safety. As a result, for their OGA the electrolyzer was placed inside a pressurized N2 jacket so that any leakage is into the electrolyzer. Also, when the OGA is turned off, the N2 flushes O2 and H2 from the lines. This design precludes the possibility of any leakage of hazardous gases to th e atmosphere, but individual components are not accessible for replacement.

As a result of the differences in design philosophy, integrating the Russian and U.S. ECLS systems must be done carefully. The equipment developed by the different approaches may not be compatible without some modification. The table below lists differences and similarities in the design philosophies of the U.S. and Russian ECLS designers.

ECLS philosophy differences and similarities
System Russian U.S.
Trace contaminant detection/control before entry No capability to verify clean air prior to entering a module. For the FGB and SM, a special filter is activated 2 days prior to first entry. Other modules are purged prior to launch and attached before offgassing contaminates the atmosphere. Samples may be collected through the MPEV and analyzed before opening the hatch by CHeCS instrumentation. Node 1 has filters to remove contaminants prior to ingress.
Trace contaminant removal Trace contaminant removal equipment sizing considers that atmospheric contaminants are removed by the humidity control assembly and due to atmospheric leakage to space. Trace contaminant removal equipment sizing does not consider other ways in which atmospheric contaminants are removed. Therefore the design is conservative.
Trace contaminant generation Generation rate prediction is based on the surface area of materials. Generation rate prediction is based on the mass of non-metallic materials.
SMAC level selection 1 SMAC levels are based on the capabilities of the available TCCS technologies, as well as health reasons. SMAC levels are based on the best information available concerning possible health impacts of contaminants.
(Note: A result of this different approach is that Russian SMAC values tend to be smaller than U.S. SMAC values. The U.S. TCCS equipment is capable, however, of maintaining concentrations well below the SMAC values for most compounds.)
Failure tolerance For repairable systems there could be many failures with no long-term loss of function. Loss of one leg of redundancy does not mean that a system has failed. Specified for each function and system. ECLS functions are zero- or one-failure tolerant. One-failure-tolerant hardware requires a redundant functional path.
Response to rapid decompression Protect from rapid depressurization rather than design for depressurization. Design for depressurization, as well as protect from depressurization.
Internal hatches Operable from the inside only (EVA hatch and Progress cargo hatch). All hatches operable from both sides (except for the Airlock hatch).
Intermodule ventilation Drag-through ducts that must be disconnected before the hatches can be closed. Hard ducts that allow IMV with the hatches closed.
Fire protection Non-flammable or slow-burning materials are used where possible. Smoke detectors and PFEs are provided. Non-flammable or slow-burning materials are used where possible. Smoke detectors and PFEs are provided.
Emergency equipment – breathing masks Emergency mask generates O2 by chemical reaction of CO2 and water vapor with the material in the mask. Emergency mask has a supply of gaseous O2.
Overall water recovery architecture Separate recovery of condensate, waste hygiene, and urine water; recovered condensate reserved for potable use; recovered urine reserved for electrolysis. Recovered urine water is combined with all other waste waters and processed to potable specification for reuse in all applications.
Water quality measurement On-line measurement of conductivity only. Off-line measurement of samples returned to Earth. On-line measurement of conductivity, pH, iodine, and TOC. Off-line measurement of micro-organisms, TOC, and specific ions.
Biocide in water 2 Ag (silver) l2 (Iodine)
(Note: There is an integration concern that if the waters are mixed, Agl2 would precipitate out, removing biocide activity and potentially clogging lines.)
Metabolic design requirements O2 consumption: 0.86 kg/day/person (1.89 lb/day/person);
CO2 production:
1.00 kg/day/person (2.20 lb/day/person).		 O2 consumption:
0.84 kg/day/person (1.84 lb/day/person);
CO2 production:
1.00 kg/day/person (2.20 lb/day/person).
Oxygen concentration Materials must be compatible with 40% ppO2. Materials must be compatible with 24.1% ppO2(except for the Airlock, where the maximum is 30% ppO2).
Oxygen supply During normal operation:
100% generated by electrolysis.
During crew exchange or other off-nominal condition:
75% generated by electrolysis and 25% from perchlorate or other source.		 Initial operation:
Supplied by the Russian Segment or Shuttle.
After the Hab OGA is operating:
100% is generated by electrolysis. (O2 for EVAs is resupplied from the Space Shuttle in tanks.)
CO2 partial pressure 3 5.3 mmHg (0.10 psia) with a maximum 7.6 mmHg (0.147 psia). See Figure 93.
[1.0 HEU = 1.0 kg/person/day (2.2 lb/person/day) CO2 removed.
The equation of the line is defined by:
HEU³ 1.723 ppCO2 (mmHg)−minus;0.37975 for 2.0² ppCO2² 3.9]
(Note: During crew exchange, the specifications allow 7.6 mmHg with peaks to 9.9 mmHg.)
Humidity removal Moisture is removed from the atmosphere as necessary. Temperature control and humidity removal are separate functions. Moisture is removed from the atmosphere continuously. Temperature control and humidity removal are performed by the same device.
Operating pressure 79.9 to 114.4 kPa (11.6 to 16.6 psia); 93.0 kPa (13.5 psia) normal minimum. (In operation, the RS total pressure matches that of the USOS.) 97.9 to 102.7 kPa (14.2 to 14.9 psia). 95.8 kPa (13.9 psia) normal minimum.
Crew accommodation With the SM, three people normally with up to five during crew exchange. After activation of the Russian Life Support Module, six people normally with TBD during crew exchange. After the Hab is activated, six people normally, and TBD during crew exchange (includes Space Shuttle and JEM/APM).
EVA atmosphere Prior to activation of the Docking Module, venting of atmosphere in the Pirs airlock for EVA. After activation of the DM, recovery of atmosphere in the AL prior to EVA. Recovery of atmosphere in the AL (Quest) prior to EVA.
EVA suits 36.5 kPa (5.3 psia) (Orlan-M) 29.66 kPa (4.3 psia) (EMU)
Shower water usage One 10 L (0.35 ft³, 22 lb) shower per person each week. 5.5 L (0.19 ft³, 12 lb) shower every 2 days per person.
Food supply Almost all food is dehydrated and requires potable water to rehydrate. Diet includes moist food, which provides a source of water to the system.
Potable water Minerals are added to the processed condensate water, which add flavor and provide a pH-balanced water. No additives to the potable water.
Hardware location When possible, hardware items performing related or connected functions are located in the same module to avoid the need to plumb fluids between modules. When possible, hardware items performing related or connected functions are located in the same module; however, fluids are plumbed between modules.
Hardware maintenance Components are replaced after failure, or based on statistical expectation of failure. Components are replaced after failure or, for limited-life items, on a scheduled basis.

RS ECLS capabilities

The specified RS ECLSS capabilities are listed below:

Control Total Atmospheric Pressure

The atmospheric total pressure is manually monitored over the range of 0 to 960 mmHg (0.0 to 18.5 psia) with an accuracy of ±plusmn;2 mmHg (0.04 psia). The atmospheric total pressure is automatically monitored over the range of 1 to 1,000 mmHg (0.02 to 19.4 psia) with an accuracy of ±plusmn;30 mmHg (0.58 psia). The total pressure is maintained between 734 and 770 mmHg (14.2 and 14.9 psia) with a minimum pressure of 700 mmHg (13.5 psia). N2 is added to replenish losses, but the ppN2 is maintained below 600 mmHg (11.6 psia). The cargo vehicle has the capability to introduce atmospheric gases (nitrogen, oxygen, or air) into the habitat to maintain the atmospheric pressure.

Control Oxygen Partial Pressure

The ppO2 is monitored over a range of 0 to 300 mmHg (0 to 5.8 psia) with an accuracy of ±plusmn;12 mmHg (0.23 psia). The ppO2 is maintained between 146 an 173 mmHg (2.83 and 3.35 psia) with a maximum concentration of 24.8 percent by volume. Oxygen is added at a rate of 0.86 kg/person/day (1.89 lb/person/day) for three people during normal operations and six people during crew transfer operations.

Relieve Overpressure

The total pressure is maintained below the maximum allowable design pressure for the ISS, the maximum allowable design pressure is 104.7 kPa (15.2 psia, 786 mmHg). The RS modules are designed to accommodate pressures as high as 128.8 kPa (18.7 psia, 970 mmHg).

Equalize Pressure

The pressure differential between adjacent, isolated volumes at 775 mmHg (15.0 psia) and 740 mmHg (14.3 psia) can be equalized to less than 0.5 mmHg (0.01 psia) within 3 min.

Control Atmospheric Temperature

The atmospheric temperature is monitored over the range of 15.5 to 32.2 °C (60 to 90 °F) with an accuracy of ±plusmn;1 °C (2 °F). The atmospheric temperature in the cabin aisleway is maintained within the range of 18 to 28 °C (64 to 82 °F) and within ±plusmn;1.5 °C (3 °F) of the selected temperature.

Control Atmospheric Moisture

The atmospheric relative humidity in the cabin aisleway is maintained within the range of 30 to 70 percent, the dewpoint within the range of 4.4 to 15.6 °C (40 to 60 °F), and the water vapor pressure is monitored over a range of 1 to 35 mmHg (0.02 to 0.68 psia) with an accuracy of ±plusmn;1.5 mmHg (0.029 psia). For the Soyuz, while attached to the ISS, the dewpoint is maintained in the range of 4.4 to 14.0 °C (40 to 57 °F). Moisture removed as humidity condensate is delivered at an average rate of 1.5 kg/person/day (3.3 lb/ person/day) to the SM water processor.

Circulate Atmosphere Intramodule

The effective atmospheric velocity in the FGB cabin aisleway is maintained within the range of 0.05 to 0.2 m/sec (10 to 40 fpm). The effective atmospheric velocity pertains to the time-averaged velocity in the cabin, using averages over time periods sufficient to achieve stability. Two-thirds of the local velocity measurements are within the design range, with a minimum velocity of 0.036 m/sec (7.1 fpm) and a maximum velocity of 1.02 m/sec (200 fpm). Atmospheric velocities within 15 cm (6 in) of the cabin interior surfaces are not considered.

Circulate Atmosphere Intermodule

The SM exchanges atmosphere with the USOS at a rate of 60 to 70 L/sec (127 to 148 cfm).

Respond to Fire

Fire safety criteria are shown in figure 13. Isolation of the fire (by removal of power and forced ventilation in the affected location) will occur within 30 sec of detection. Detection of a fire will initiate a Class I alarm and a visual indication of the fire event will be activated. Forced ventilation between modules will stop within 30 sec of annunciation of a Class I fire alarm. PBA’s and PFE’s are provided.

Fires will be suppressed using PFE’s within 1 min of suppressant discharge. The capability to restore the habitable environment after a fire event is present.

Respond to Rapid Decompression

A decompression of more than 90 mmHg per hr (1.74 psi per hr) will be detected and a Class I alarm will be activated when such a decompression rate is detected.

Respond to Hazardous Atmosphere

PBA’s (breathing masks) with a 15-min supply of O2 (generated by chemical reaction from CO2 and water vapor) are provided for each crew member. The FGB provides such capability for three people.

Accommodate Crew Hygiene and Wastes

Facilities are provided for personal hygiene and collection, processing, and disposal of crew metabolic waste. The wastes include menstrual discharge and associated absorbent material; emesis; fecal solids, liquids, gases, and particulates; urine and associated consumable material; soap, expectorants, hair, nail trimmings, and hygiene water; and crew wastes collected during EVA’s. Facilities are provided for personal grooming, including skin care, shaving, hair grooming, and nail trimming. Simultaneous whole body skin and hair cleaning are accommodated.

Control CO2

The atmospheric ppCO2 is maintained at a maximum daily average of 4.50 mmHg (0.08 psia), with peak levels no greater than 7.60 mmHg (0.147 psia). CO2 is removed and disposed of at an average rate of 0.96 kg/person/day (2.12 lb/person/ day) for three people during normal operations and six people during crew exchanges. The ppCO2 level is monitored over a range of 0.00 to 25.00 mmHg (0.00 to 0.48 psia) with an accuracy of ±plusmn;2.00 mmHg (0.038 psia).

Control Gaseous Contaminants

Atmospheric trace gas contaminants that are generated during normal operations are maintained at levels below the Maximum Allowable Concentration (MAC) levels. The removed gases are discarded. The MAC levels are listed in table 6. Provisions are made to accom-modate the U.S. air monitoring equipment according to SSP 50065, the CHeCS to RS ICD.

Control Airborne Particulate Contaminants

The daily average concentration of airborne particulates is limited to less than 0.15 mg/m3 for particles from 0.5 to 300 microns in size.

Control Airborne Microbial Growth

The daily average concentration of airborne microorganisms is limited to less than 1,000 CFU/m3. (Present Russian capabilities can limit airborne microbes to 500 CFU/m3 for bacteria and to less than 100 CFU/m3 for fungi.) Microbial monitoring is performed using U.S. and Russian equipment.

Provide Water for Crew Use

An average of 2.5 kg/person/day (5.5 lb/person/day) of potable water is provided for six people for food rehydration, consumption, and oral hygiene. The SM provides an average of 1.1 kg/person/day (2.42 lb/person/ day) of hygiene water for three people. After activation of the LSM, the LSM and SM combined provide an average of 4.53 kg/person/day (9.96 lb/person/day) of hygiene water. The qualities of the waters meet the specifications defined in the “System Specification for the International Space Station,” SSP41000E, 3 July 1996. Humidity condensate is processed to potable water quality. Urine is collected and disposed of at an average rate of 1.2 kg/person/day (2.64 lb/person/day). This function is performed in the SM until the LSM is activated. After activation of the LSM, urine is processed and provided to the Elektron to produce breathing oxygen.

To monitor the water quality, the SM accommodates U.S. provided water monitoring equipment, according to SSP 50065, the CHeCS to RS ICD. Sample ports for manual collection of water samples are provided to facilitate off-line monitoring and analysis of processed water, and for archiving of water samples.

Support Station Ingress

The DC supports the controlled, tethered entry into the RS by a person in a pressurized spacesuit. The DC supports repressurization from vacuum to the RS atmospheric pressure at a nominal repressurization rate of 5 mmHg per sec. The maximum emergency repressurization rate is 10 mmHg per sec. In the event of an emergency during an EVA, an unimpaired crew member can reenter the AL within 30 min.

Distribute Gases to User Payloads

This capability is not presently required on the RS.

ISS motion control & navigation

This can be described as figuring out which way the ISS is orientated, and where it is. This is a horribly complicated subject which I don’t quite understand (it involves a lot of fearsome-looking algebra), but I’ll summarize what I know as best I can. For reference I am mostly using Motion Control and Navigation of the Russian Segment, a 1998 Star City training manual, and the NASA Guidance, Navigation and Control manual, and have quoted verbatim from these for some of the descriptions. (Like most of these types of manuals, these could be marketed as a cure for insomnia.)

Russian Guidance, Navigation and Control (СУДН, SUDN) equipment: Zvezda СУДН equipment comprises 4 sun sensors, 2 rate gyros, 3 horizon sensors, 2 GLONASS receivers, 2 magnetometers. There are 32 attitude thrusters and 2 reboost engines.

ISS co-ordinates

To provide reference points for navigation, the ISS uses a three-axis co-ordinate system on both segments. The illustration shows both U.S. and Russian segment co-ordinates; the latter are shown with a dashed line. The U.S. positive axes (X, Y, Z) point forwards, starboard and downwards towards the Earth, respectively. (Negative axes point in the opposite direction to each of these.) The Russian segment’s positive X-axis points aftwards, Y to the zenith (top) and Z to port (in the right-handed co-ordinate system). That’s a very simplified description, I might add!

The Russian system of design and construction for the modules involves the concept of planes, (more precisely, half-planes). These are located at angle of 90° to each other along the longitudinal axis (X-axis). Planes are designated by Roman numerals. As a rule, they are orientated:

  1. into the zenith (upwards);
  2. to the right (starboard), if we look in the forward direction of the module;
  3. into the nadir (downwards);
  4. to the left (port) in the forward direction of flight.

This diagram from Manned Astronautics shows both systems as preformatted text:

                                           Russian coordinate system:                American coordinate system:

                                                          -Z (right)                                +X (right)
                                         (top, zenith) +Y /                        (top, zenith) +Z /
                                                        |/                                        |/
<---  direction of moving                  (fore) -X ---0---> +X (aft)               (fore) +Y <--0---  -Y (aft)
                                                       /|                                        /|
                                                      / -Y (bottom, nadir)                      / -Z (bottom, nadir)
                                                   +Z (left)                                 -X (left)

Attitude control keeps the ISS pointed in the right direction (so that it isn’t floating, say, upside-down) relative to the Earth. Control is maintained either by the U.S. or Russian segments. Attitude control for the U.S. segment is provided by four Control Movement Gyroscopes mounted on the Z-1 Mast. These weigh 300 kg each and are numbered (clockwise from bottom left) 1, 2, 3, 4. The wheel at the center of each gimbal assembly spins up to 6600 rpm, providing the gyroscopic effects used to generate control torques. They use non-propulsive attitude control, and thus are the main method of attitude control.

The ISS is generally orientated in one of three attitudes:

Below, Russian SUDN equipment is briefly described.

GIVUS
«ГИВУС»

The Russian gyroscope is the GIVUS, «ГИВУС» (usually referred to by its acronym as the full meaning is too much of a mouthful in either language). It “is meant for measuring increment integral from the angular momentum vector projection of the ISS RS to the device’s measuring axes (i.e. it measures attitude rates).” There are 4 measurement channels that operate independently of each other. (There were to be 6 Kentavr gyroscopes installed on the yet-to-be-built Universal Docking Module (УСМ, USM), but this has yet to eventuate.)

DO
ДО

DO, attitude control thrusters on the Service Module and Progress (16 on the latter) provide maneuvering and reboost capabilities for the ISS. The Progress is preferably used for this as Zvezda’s thrusters have a limited burn lifetime. The ISS needs to be reboosted every 3 months or so due to orbital decay – there is still some atmosphere even at its average height of 400 km, and this produces drag; the ISS would eventually fall out of orbit if not reboosted (and if it landed on an occupied area of Earth, it would ruin quite a few people’s days).

Optical devices

Infrared horizon sensors (ИКВС, IKVS) are used to maneuver in the orbital co-ordinate system and to perform alignment of the inertial co-ordinal system. They use the infrared emittance of the Earth and its near atmospheric layer.

Sun sensors (СД, SD) are used to determine the Station’s inertial attitude and to perform one-axis alignment and inertial co-ordinate system correction. The СД is a scanning device that determines the position of the sun in reference to the device’s co-ordinate system.

The БОКЗ, BOKZ star mapper is used to determine the Station’s attitude by finding a field of stars in its field of view.

There are various hand-held devices for crew members’ use, including the zoom sight Пума, Puma that monitors and determines co-ordinates of objects.

The Russian «ГЛОНАСС», GLONASS satellite system is the Russian equivalent of the American Global Positioning System; these radionavigation satellites provide positioning data.

ISS orientation

NASA also have a Macromedia Flash animation on their site explaining ISS orientation. Below is a transcription.

The ISS incorporates different flight attitudes in order to maximize power and minimize negative thermal effects. In order to understand the three attitudes employed by the ISS, a basic understanding of the ISS body coordinates is needed.

ISS will fly in three different flight attitudes until the main solar arrays are in position. The attitudes are:

X-axis in the Velocity Vector (XVV)

Nominal flight attitude. Currently this attitude is flown in low Beta angles, but will be the only attitude flown after the primary solar arrays are in place (after assembly mission 12A).

XVV is defined in the Local Vertical, Local Horizontal (LVLH) rotational reference frame. The positive Z-axis (extending from the base of the Station) points towards the Earth’s center (nadir). The Y-axis points opposite the angular momentum vector (i.e. the forward direction of travel). In essence, the ISS is traveling with the Destiny lab foremost.

XVV

X-axis Parallel to H (XPH)

Inertial flight attitude during assembly designed to maximize power generation during mid- to high solar beta angles.

XPH is defined using a quasi-inertial reference frame, XPOP, or “X is Perpendicular Out of Plane”. X is aligned with the angular momentum vector “h”. Z is positive pointing nadir at orbital noon. Y completes the right-hand rule. This attitude was developed for the assembly stage in which only a single axis of solar array sun-tracking is available (i.e. the two solar panels mounted on the “Mast”), hence maximizing power production.

XPH

Y-axis in the Velocity Vector (YVV)

Rotational flight attitude similar to XVV, but rotated 90 degrees in yaw (i.e. the ISS is flying sideways, with one end of the Truss pointed in the direction of travel). This attitude is flown in mid- to high beta ranges during assembly stages.

YVV is the flight attitude required to meet payload Earth viewing requirements. This attitude also serves to keep vehicle components from violating high temperature limits while maintaining a lower drag porfile.

YVV

Each attitude is designed to be flown during different Beta ranges. The overlap allows the Flight Control Team to decide which attitude is best for that day’s activities. Only XVV will be flown when the main solar arrays are in position (assuming the Shuttles get flying again, etc.).

YVV is also adopted when a Soyuz undocks from the nadir port of Pirs.

The Solar Beta angle, ß-angle, is the angle measured between the sun vector and the orbital plane of any Earth-orbiting object; in this case, the ISS.

Orbital angles

High solar beta angle

High solar beta angle

Low solar beta angle

Low solar beta angle

Links

Orbital mechanics at the EarthKAM site.

ISS orbit

The ISS orbits the Earth at 51.6° to the Equator, following the direction of the Earth’s rotation from west to east. The Earth itself is tilted at 23.4° to the plane of its orbit around the sun (sun vector), so the ISS is orbiting at 75° to the sun vector. The ISS’s altitude varies between 320 to 410 km, and it takes 92 minutes to circle the Earth. The orbit inclination offers good coverage of most of Earth’s surface.

Below is a screenshot from TsUP’s ISS orbital tracking page showing the ISS’s current position. As the map is laid out flat in a two-dimensional view, the orbital ground track appears as a wavy line (sine curve), but it is in reality straight as the Station circles the Earth. Similar tracking maps are projected onto the wall screens at Houston MCC and TsUP, Moscow. The TsUP map shows latitude & longitude, as well as period (time to complete one orbit), degree of orbit, maximum & minimum heights, and the cities in which the main control centers are (or will be) located: Houston (Хьюстон), Ottawa (Оттава), Paris (Париж), Moscow (Москва), Baikonur (Байконур), Tokyo (Токио).

TsUP ISS ground track

Orbital precession

The ISS completes around 15½ orbits per 24 hours at a varying height of 350-400 km. It does not orbit over the same spot every 24 hours, though, as the Earth is also turning eastward. After one orbit, the Earth has rotated approximately 15° of longitude (at the Equator). The ISS’s ground track will thus be further behind on a map projection by 15°.

From Star-Crossed Orbits by James Oberg:

It takes about 90 minutes for the satellite to complete one full circuit. When it gets back to its starting point, Earth’s surface has moved eastward. It moves 360 degrees in 24 hours, or 15 degrees per hour. So after each satellite circuit of 1.5 hours, the Earth’s surface has moved about 1.5 times 15 degrees, or 22.5 degrees, further to the east.

This precession also means that passes over Russian ground sites will also move forward by a certain amount each 24 hours (an hour or so, as best as I can figure out). It is also the reason why the Station sighting times for cities vary from one day to the next, or don’t appear at all for a week or so.

Orbit inclination

Here is a question and answer from NASA’s “Ask MCC” segment which explains why 51.6° was chosen:

From: Patrick Donovan, of Cameron Park, Calif.

To: John Curry, flight director

Question: Why is the space station in a 51.6-degree inclined orbit instead of something less or something more?

Answer: Good question, Patrick!

The short answer is that 51.6 degrees is the lowest inclination orbit into which the Russians can directly launch their Soyuz and Progress spacecraft. Both of these vehicles serve an important role in ISS operations.

The Soyuz – there is always one attached to ISS – serves as an escape vehicle in the event the ISS would need to be abandoned in an emergency. The Progress spacecraft is basically a cargo version of the Soyuz and is used to bring up fresh food and supplies to the ISS.

Ideally, one would want to launch due east from a launch site to maximize the cargo-to-orbit capability for a given launch vehicle. This is because the Earth, rotating from west to east, gives rockets a “free” head start in the right direction. Launching due east from Kennedy Space Center would place the shuttle in a 28.5-degree inclination orbit. Notice that the inclination is the same as the latitude of KSC. Launching due east from Russia’s main launch site, Baikonur, would place spacecraft in a 45.6-degree inclination orbit – the launch site latitude. However, doing so would also drop the lower stages of the boosters on China. To avoid this, the Russians crank up the minimum inclination to 51.6 degrees.

Although the shuttle does trade some payload capacity for propellant needed to make up the difference between launching at 28.5 degrees vs. 51.6 degrees, doing so allows the Russians to participate in the ISS program. It also has the added benefit to Earth Sciences since ISS flies over more of the Earth’s surface – about 75 percent, which covers about 95% of the inhabited lands – at the higher inclination orbit.

I hope this answers your question, Patrick. Thanks for asking MCC!

– Jim Cooney, ISS Trajectory Operations Officer (TOPO), Orbit 3 (planning shift) for STS-112

Latitude & longitude

For those (like me) who haven’t done any geography since their school days, here is a quick reminder of what latitude & longitude (as indicated on the TsUP map above) are!

Both latitude & longitude are divided into degrees (°), then minutes (′) and seconds (″). Degrees can also be expressed as decimal co-ordinates. (Degrees calculator at CSGNetwork.com)

Co-ordinates for main control centers (all in the Northern Hemisphere, Latitude-Longitude):

ISS control centers - longitudes and latitudes
ISS Control Center Latitude Longitude
Baikonur, Kazakhstan 47°22′N 63°25″E
Moscow, Russia 55°4′48″N 38°3′E
Houston, USA 29°27′36″N 95°13′12″W
Paris, France 48°31′12″N 2°12′E
Tokyo, Japan 35°24′N 139°27′36″E
Ottawa, Canada 45°15′N 75°25′12″W

Orbital decay

At ~350-400 kilometers altitude, the ISS is above most, but not all, of the Earth’s atmosphere, and tenuous though it is at the Station’s height, some drag is produced as atoms collide with the ISS. The Station’s orbit decays by a few hundred meters each 24 hours. The decay is variable as solar activity causes changes in the density of the outer atmosphere. Periodic reboosts are thus necessary every few months, usually undertaken by a Progress cargo ship docked to the Russian segment, or an Orbiter when docked to Destiny.

ISS orbit data is posted at the end of each daily On-Orbit Report at Spaceref. Here is data for 4 November 2004:

ISS Orbit (as of this morning, 6:37 a.m. EST [= epoch]):

Diagrams

Links

ISS power supply

Power on the ISS for lighting, electricity and experiments is provided by solar panels. The bulk of this is generated by the 8 U.S. arrays mounted in sets of 2 on the Truss, which produce a total of 26kW to 31kW, depending on their age.

User voltage in the U.S. segment is ~124 V dc secondary power and in the Russian segment is ~28 V dc; thus a converter unit (American-Russian Conversion Unit) on PMA-1 is required for electricity from one side to be used by the other.

Russian segment power

The electrical power system (СЭС, Система Электроснабжения – SES, Sistema Elektrosnabzheniya) of the Russian segment is designed to:

Zvezda and Zarya have two solar arrays (СБ, Солнечная Батареа – SB, Solnechnaya Batarea) each (these were folded during launch and then deployed in orbit, as are the arrays of the Soyuz and Progress). The solar arrays on each module are designated СБ4 (starboard plane) and СБ2 (port plane).

Electromechanical drives keep the arrays orientated towards the sun (they can also be controlled manually by the crew). The load-bearing surface of the solar arrays is fiberglass, to which the semiconductor photovoltaic cells are attached (these are metallic blue in color).

Solar energy is converted into electricity and distributed throughout the Russian segment. Any excess electricity is stored in nickel-cadmium batteries (АБ, аккумуляторная батарея – AB, Akkumulyatornaya Batareya), which provide a secondary source of power when the ISS is in orbital night, and also serve as a backup source of power. The power systems (СЭС) in both Zvezda and Zarya are separate and self-contained.

Zarya’s solar arrays were retracted in September 2007 to provide clearance for the U.S. segment radiators that would be unfurled later in the year. The starboard wing was folded in on 28/9 (14:09-14:26 UTC) and the port wing on 29/9 (12:59-13:14 UTC). Zvezda, however, still provides some power. The two FGB solar arrays (and presumably the SM arrays) could provide a maximum of 7500 watts of power.

Two modules, Science Power Modules 1 & 2 ( NEM-1 & -2), are to be launched in the future to provide independent power for the Russian segment; up to 48 kWt capacity each.

From Peggy Whitson’s “Letters Home,” #10:

The arrays are reddish-gold when the sun lights them, and during sunrises or sunsets the edges of the arrays look like glowing coals in a fire. The Russian solar arrays are much smaller and mounted directly to the Service Module and FGB. In contrast these arrays are white in the sun, but during darkness, they have an opalescent quality of blues and greens.

Diagrams

Gallery

Russian segment solar arrays

A photo taken by the STS-105 crew showing the Russian segment solar arrays.

Solar array at sunset

An Expedition 2 crewmember shot this sunset photo of sunlight shining through one of Zvezda’s solar arrays, the fiberglass surface illuminated gold.

Soyuz TMA-9 and Progress M-57 docked to the ISS

Another nice view of the iridescent blue solar panels of the Russian segment.

Updated: 8/4/2012

ISS SGO (sanitation & hygiene)

Sanitation is included under the acronym of SOZH, СОЖ – Life Support Systems – along with water and food (the last two are described in a separate section) and is part of the primary life support system located in Zvezda.

The sanitation and hygiene equipment (SGO, СГО) is located in Zvezda, in a compartment aft of the starboard cabin (kayuta, каюта). (Sadly, there is no window for occupants to look out of while occupied.) The main component of this is the toilet (or ASU, АСУ in Russian). A hand-washer was in the original design, but was deleted as it was too awkward to use.

As there is no gravity for things to fall, vacuum suction is used to draw away waste. Liquids and solids are treated separately and stored in silver cylindrical containers; both are disposed of when a Progress cargo ship departs and burns up in the atmosphere. Urine was recycled on Mir but the Russian toilet on the ISS does not have this capability.

The toilet is of the same well-tested design used on Mir (it is manufactured by RD & PE Zvezda); this was apparently preferred by the Space Shuttle astronauts to the Orbiter’s own toilet when docked to Mir. In July 2007, NASA was to pay Energiya $19 million to manufacture a toilet system that would be installed in the U.S. segment in 2008, to support a crew of 6 beginning in 2009. The new toilet would augment the old one; unlike the latter the new toilet will be able to filter and purify urine into potable water (likely to be used for the Elektron oxygen device).

Once a week, usually on Sundays, toilet flush readings data is downlinked to TsUP (which means that each crewperson’s daily visits are monitored!). There is also inspection of the urine collection (SP, СП) & pretreat assembly and water supply status (SVO, СВО) counter readings.

Tidbits from On-Orbit Reports:

OOR 17 March 2005

The crew worked on the SOZh environment control & life support system, completing the regular daily maintenance and performing significant repair on the ASU toilet facilities, which experienced a failure of its urine collection system overnight. The failed urine collection valve was successfully replaced with a spare. (When the ASU facilities are down, the crew can temporarily use the Soyuz toilet.)

OOR 13 May 2005

The CDR serviced the ASU toilet facility, replacing the pretreat container (E-K, ЭК) plus hose with a new assembly, discarding the old one. (E-K contains five liters of pre-treat solution – a mix of H2SO4 [sulfuric acid], CrO3 [chromium oxide, for oxidation and purple color], and H2O [water]. The pre-treat liquid is mixed with water in a dispenser [DKiV, ДКиВ] and used for toilet flushing.)

More details (LSS ISS)

“Station Prepares for Expanding Crew,” NASA, 7 November 2008. In November 2008, as part of the ISS crew expansion plan, a new Russian-built toilet was delivered on STS-126 and installed in the Destiny Lab. Solid waste is stored for disposal as usual, but liquid waste is sent to processing units in the NASA-designed Water Recovery System to be purified and recycled for various uses, including potable water for drinking.

Diagrams & photo links

Diagrams from the Russian Popular Mechanics article linked below:

Patrick Sinnott sent me a lot of ISS ASU photos! Direct links to the photos:

Gallery

ISS ASU ISS ASU

Views of the ISS ASU ground model.

Second ISS toilet

Ground model of the second ISS ASU

Second toilet on ISS

Inflight photo of the second ASU in Destiny by Expedition 19 (and two more). First inflight photos of a toilet, incidentally!

Links

See also: Soyuz ASU

Atmosphere revitalization (SOGS)

This page briefly describes part of the Russian segment Environmental Crew and Life Support Systems of the International Space Station: atmosphere revitalization (SOGS), generating oxygen and filtering carbon dioxide.

Onboard air for the ISS’s human occupants must be artificially generated and recycled, and monitored for purity. The Russians developed this technology on the Salyut and Mir space stations, and it’s really rather clever.

Oxygen supply system

This consists of the Elektron unit, two solid-fuel oxygen generators (TGK) and deliverable oxygen from the Progress cargo spacecraft.

Elektron
«Электрон»

The Elektron is the main source of oxygen, and produces oxygen via a simple process: the electrochemical decompostion of water to separate the oxygen and hydrogen that water is comprised of (H2O). In simpler terms, an electric current passed through water breaks the water down into its atomic components (hydrogen and oxygen). An electrolysis unit breaks down (decomposes) the water in a potassium hydroxide solution (30% in solution). The resultant oxygen is released into the Service Module; the hydrogen is vented into space. Water is pumped from a supply tank to the Elektron device, which resembles a tall silver cylinder about the size of a human torso, and is located behind panels 429 & 430 in Zvezda (on the starboard side of crew quarters, just forward of the galley table)

The Elektron, like most other equipment, is controlled by the onboard computer system; crews interact and monitor it via a laptop, as well as the Elektron’s manual controls.

TGK
ТГК

Two solid fuel oxygen generators (TGK, Твердотопливный Генератор Кислорода, Tverdotoplivnyi Generator Kisloroda) provide back-up oxygen generation if the Elektron fails. They provide oxygen by heating a solid oxygen compound (either lithium perchlorate mentioned below, or potassium perchlorate, mentioned in the LSS-ISS) which decomposes into oxygen and potassium chloride. The candles are also referred to by the acronym SFOG by NASA.

The solid oxygen compound used was lithium perchlorate (LiClO4) in the old-style TGK, and potassium perchlorate (KClO4) in the new design. The change in compound was because it was the lithium type that caught fire onboard the Mir Space Station. The compound is contained in briquette form in a “candle,” which generates 600 liters of oxygen by thermal decomposing (burning), enough to support one crewperson for one day, and takes up to 20 minutes to decompose. The reaction temperature is 450-500°C which generates about 800W of heat.

The old design, which was manually ignited by rotating a driving handle and could fail to ignite on occasion, was replaced by an electrically-fired device in 2006, as noted in the 4 October On-Orbit Status:

In the SM, FE-1 Tyurin completed the scheduled removal and replacement of one of the two SFOG (Solid Fuel Oxygen Generator, TGK) ignition “boxes” with the new electrically-ignited type and connected the associated electronic control unit (BU TGK). Afterwards, he successfully burned a “candle” as a test, which yielded ~1.6 mmHg of O2. (The SFOGs, on standby as oxygen sources as backup to the Elektron and Progress-stored O2, generate O2 by decomposing cartridges of solid potassium perchlorate (KClO4) into potassium chloride (KCl) and O2 when heated at 400°C. The “old style” SFOGs were mechanically ignited with a percussion cap.)

Air purification system

This is designed to remove carbon dioxide and gaseous trace contaminants from the atmosphere. The system includes the following:

Vozdukh
«Воздух»

The Vozdukh (meaning “Air”) removes carbon dioxide and other gaseous trace contaminants from the Station’s atmosphere. CO2 is absorbed by molecular sieves consisting of Zeolite, a solid porous absorbent material. (This can be regenerated by exposure to vacuum.) The Vozdukh can be operated in manual or automatic modes. A series of valves channels the air; these can be quite noisy and emit a loud screech about every 10 minutes or so (as Expedition 1 found out to their displeasure). If the Vozdukh is off-line, CO2 absorbent canisters are utilized as a back-up. The Vozdukh is located behind panel 425 on the starboard side of Zvezda (just forward of the Elektron).

The Vozdukh’s emergency vacuum valves are tested monthly – they vent carbon dioxide filtered from the sieves into the vacuum of space, so it is obviously important that they close properly! From 23 April 2004 On-Orbit Status:

In another joint walkthrough with Padalka, Kaleri completed the periodic (monthly) functional closure test of the Vozdukh CO2 removal system’s emergency vacuum valves (АВК, AVK), last time done: 4/9). (The AVKs are critical because they close the Vozdukh’s vacuum access lines in the event of a malfunction in the regular vacuum valves (БВК, BVK) or a depressurization in the Vozdukh valve panel (БОА, BOA). Access to vacuum is required to vent carbon dioxide (CO2) during the regeneration of the absorbent cartridges (ПП, PP). During nominal operation of the Vozdukh, the AVK valves remain open.)

Carbon dioxide absorbent canisters

The lithium oxide-based canisters of the Service Module Zvezda provide a backup means of removing CO2 from the atmosphere of habitable compartments. There are two canisters; fans push air through them and the lithium oxide absorbs the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The CO2-removal capacity of one canister is 1600 liters (56.5 ft³).

Trace contaminants control unit (БМП, BMP)

This removes contaminants from the atmosphere. It consists of two regenerable activated-charcoal cartridges, a cartridge containing a catalytic oxidizer, a filter, a fan, and valves. Atmosphere purification can be performed in one of two modes of operation: by using both charcoal cartridges simultaneously or by using only one cartridge at a time. The charcoal beds absorb high molecular-weight trace contaminants. The catalyst oxidizes carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide, and the hydrogen to water. The charcoal cartridges must be regenerated every 20 days by exposure to vacuum for a 12-hour period; they are heated to 200°C during the process.

Harmful impurities filter

This, the FVP, ФВП, absorbs harmful gases (acetone, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, etc.) from the Station’s atmosphere. It is installed in Zarya behind panel 411. The filter is made up of two parts: a replaceable cartridge containing a chemical sorbent and activated charcoal, and a permanent catalyst (for oxidizing CO to CO2).

The ФВП can be activated via ground commands. It was activated prior to the arrival of Expedition 1 and then until the main elements of the SOGS were activated. It was then to be used to purify Zvezda’s atmosphere in the event of an off-nominal situation.

Other systems

Gas Analysis System

This continuously monitors partial pressures of oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapor and hydrogen content in the atmosphere. There is one analyzer in Zvezda, and one in Zarya.

Pressure Integrity Monitoring System

This monitors the total atmospheric pressure in the Russian Segment’s compartments, and transmits a warning signal to the Caution and Warning panel if the pressure drops below acceptable levels (i.e. if there is a hull breach).

The Interface Pressure Integrity Monitors are used to pressurize and equalize the atmosphere in the docking chambers, such as during a Soyuz or Progress docking.

Temperature and humidity control

The atmosphere in the ISS’s pressurized modules is equal to that at sea level. The atmospheric control elements maintain the air’s composition at the required percentages of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21-40%). Liquid-air heat exchangers provide temperature and humidity control. Temperature is generally kept around 23°C; humidity around 10%.

Fire detection and suppression

All three Russian modules have smoke detectors. Zvezda has a “Signal” infrared smoke detection system, while Zarya’s system consists of 10 induction smoke detectors (which use particle detectors). Portable fire extinguishers are provided, which produce a non-toxic foam. These cannot, however, be used in the U.S. segment as the foam conducts electricity and poses an electric shock hazard from equipment there carrying a voltage of 120 Vdc (Russian segment is 28 Vdc). Rebreather-type gas masks are provided for protection against smoke inhalation; these produce oxygen via a chemical reaction for up to 140 minutes. From the 9 August 2002 On-Orbit Report:

A new Flight Rule is being written to prohibit use of Russian fire extinguishers (PFE) in the US segment (USOS). Onboard Emergency Books are being modified accordingly. Since the Russian PFEs use a foam extinguishant (akin to water in terms of conductivity), they pose an electrical shock hazard from equipment carrying the USOS voltage of 120Vdc, as compared to the Russian segment voltage of 28Vdc. (Recent testing has shown that the foam is capable of transmitting 500 milliamps (mA); 40 mA poses a serious shock hazard.)

Gallery

Sergei with the Elektron

Sergei Krikalyov prepares to wrangle with the Elektron.

Aleksandr near the Vozhdukh

Aleksandr Kaleri working on the Vozdukh CO2 scrubber.

Sergei with the Vozdukh

Sergei with the Vozdukh on STS-98, prior to its installation in the ISS in 2001.

Links

SOZH – life support

Water, food and sanitation come under the acronym of SOZH, СОЖ – Life Support Systems – and are part of the primary life support system located in Zvezda. All are monitored and controlled by the on-board computer system, the laptops providing a crew interface with these.

Sanitation (SGO, СГО) is described in a separate section.

Food

Three daily meals plus a snack are consumed from pre-packaged foods. Packages requiring heating are placed in the electric food warmer set in the galley table in Zvezda, which contains a number of cells for heating food. Both Russian and American rations are supplied.

There is a wide and delicious variety of foods available (an important psychological booster for long-duration crews). An Aerovit multivitamin tablet is taken during the first two meals.

Fresh fruit and other treats are brought up via a Progress cargo flight; they have to be eaten within the first week or so as there is no means of long-term storage. There was supposed to be a refrigerator on board, but I don’t think it is there yet.

Like everything else on the ISS, the crew’s food intake is monitored. Details from an On-Orbit Report:

OOR 24 June 2005

The FE also filled out the regular weekly FFQ (food frequency questionnaire), his eighth, which keeps a log of his nutritional intake over time on special MEC (medical equipment computer) software. (With the updated MEC software, John is using his personalized file that reflects the food flown for his Increment. The FFQ records amounts consumed during the past week of such food items as beverages, cereals, grains, eggs, breads, snacks, sweets, fruit, beans, soup, vegetables, dairy, fish, meat, chicken, sauces & spreads, and vitamins. IBMP [Institute of Biomedical Problems]-recommended average daily caloric value of the crew’s food intake is 2200-2300 cal. If larger quantities of juices and fruits are taken into account, the value can go to 2400-2500 cal.)

Below is an example of a 10-day meal plan, this for Valerii Tokarev of Expedition 12. A key to the food preservation type abbreviations is given below.

B
Beverage
I
Irradiated
IM
Intermediate Moisture
NF
Natural Form (i.e. unprocessed)
R
Rehydrated
T
Thermostabilized
Valerii Tokarev’s 10-day meal plan, ISS-12
Day Meal 1 (Breakfast) Meal 2 (Lunch) Meal 3 (Dinner) Meal 4 (Snack)
1
  • Cottage Cheese/Nuts (R)
  • Apple Dessert (T)
  • Russkoye Cookies (NF)
  • Milk (R)
  • Apricot-Apple Jce w/ Pulp (R)
  • Vitamins
  • Pike Perch in Baltika Sauce (T)
  • Kharcho Mutton Soup (R)
  • Pork w/ Lecho Sauce (R)
  • Borodinskiy Bread (IM)
  • Kuraga (IM)
  • Apple-Black Currant Jce/Pulp (R) x2
  • Tea w/o Sugar
  • Shrimp Cocktail (R)
  • BBQ Beef Brisket (I)
  • Potatoes au Gratin (R)
  • Cherry-Blueberry Cobbler (T)
  • Strawberry Drink (B)
  • Tea w/ Sugar (B)
  • Peanut Butter (T)
  • Crackers (NF)
  • Orange-Pineapple Drink (B)
2
  • Cornflakes (R)
  • Sausage Pattie (R)
  • Blueberry-Raspberry Yogurt (T)
  • Orange Drink (B)
  • Coffee w/ C & S (B)
  • Chicken Noodle Soup (T)
  • Teriyaki Chicken (R)
  • Italian Vegetables (R)
  • Peach Ambrosia (R) Lemonade (B)
  • Tea w/ L & S (B)
  • Omelet w/ Chicken (T)
  • Pork w/ Potatoes (T)
  • Moscow Rye Bread (IM)
  • Honey Cake (IM)
  • Apricot Juice w/ Pulp (R) x2 Currant Tea w/ Sugar (B)
  • Vitamins
  • Cottage Cheese/Apple Puree (T)
  • Sweet Almonds (NF)
  • Grape-Plum Juice w/ Pulp (R)
  • Tea w/o Sugar (R)
3
  • Buckwheat Gruel w/ Milk (R)
  • Apple-Apricot Bar (IM)
  • Apricot-Black Currant Juice (B)
  • Coffee w/o Sugar (R)
  • Vitamins
  • Spiced Pike Perch (T)
  • Pureed Vegetable Soup (R)
  • Beef Goulash (T)
  • Mashed Potatoes w/ Onions (R)
  • Moscow Rye Bread (IM)
  • Apple-Peach Juice w/ Pulp (R)
  • Tea w/o Sugar (R)
  • Chicken Strips in Salsa (T)
  • Carrot Coins (T)
  • Fruit Cocktail (T)
  • Brownie (NF)
  • Orange-Grapefruit Drink (B)
  • Dried Apricots (IM)
  • Almonds (NF)
  • Tea w/ Sugar (B)
4
  • Granola w/ Raisins (R)
  • Mexican Scrambled Eggs (R)
  • Peach Yogurt (T)
  • Chocolate Breakfast Drink (B)
  • Pineapple Drink (B)
  • Coffee w/ C & S (B)
  • Cream of Mushroom Soup (R)
  • Sweet & Sour Chicken (R)
  • Noodles & Chicken (R)
  • Tropical Punch (B)
  • Tea w/ Sugar (B)
  • Jellied Pike Perch (T)
  • Lamb w/ Vegetables (T)
  • Borodinskiy Bread (IM)
  • Prunes Stuffed w/ Nuts (IM)
  • Apricot-Apple Juice w/ Pulp (R) x2
  • Strawberry Tea w/ Sugar (R)
  • Vitamins
  • Omelet w/ Chicken (T)
  • Visit Crackers (NF)
  • Peach-Apricot Juice w/ Pulp (R)
  • Tea w/o Sugar (R)
5
  • Rossiyskiy Cheese (T)
  • Peach Dessert (T)
  • Visit Crackers (NF)
  • Milk (R)
  • Apple-Peach Juice w/ Pulp (R)
  • Coffee w/ Sugar (R)
  • Vitamins
  • Bream in Tomato Sauce (T)
  • Borsch w/ Meat (R)
  • Meat w/ Barley Kasha (T)
  • Table Bread (IM)
  • Apple-Plum Bar (IM)
  • Apricot Juice w/ Pulp (R) x2
  • Tea w/o Sugar (R)
  • Teriyaki Beef Steak (I)
  • Green Beans w/ Mushrooms (R)
  • Pineapple (T)
  • Candy Coated Chocolates (NF)
  • Apple Cider (B)
  • Cheddar Cheese Spread (T)
  • Crackers (NF)
  • Tea w/ L & S (B)
6
  • Scrambled Eggs (R)
  • Cinnamon Roll (NF)
  • Vanilla Breakfast Drink (B)
  • Orange-Mango Drink (B)
  • Coffee w/ C & S (B)
  • Split Pea Soup (T)
  • Smoked Turkey (I)
  • Teriyaki Vegetables (R)
  • Cherry-Blueberry Cobbler (T)
  • Grapefruit Drink (B)
  • Tea w/ L & S (B)
  • Pork Piquant (T)
  • Tokana Meat & Vegetables (T)
  • Moscow Rye Bread (NF)
  • Russkoye Cookies (NF)
  • Apricot-Apple Juice w/ Pulp (R) x2
  • Tea w/ Lemon & Sugar (B)
  • Vitamins
  • Prunes Stuffed w/ Nuts (IM)
  • Ledokol Toffee (NF)
  • Peach-Black Currant Juice w/ Pulp (R)
  • Tea w/o Sugar (R)
7
  • Cottage Cheese/Nuts (R)
  • Apple Dessert (T)
  • Buckwheat Gruel w/ Milk (R)
  • Visit Crackers (NF)
  • Apple-Peach Juice w/ Pulp (R) x2
  • Coffee w/ Sugar (R)
  • Vitamins
  • Beet Salad (R)
  • Pickled Cucumber/Meat Soup (R)
  • Beef w/ Vegetables (T)
  • Borodinskiy Bread (IM)
  • Stelutsa Dessert (IM)
  • Peach-Black Currant Juice w/ Pulp (R)
  • Currant Tea w/ Sugar (B)
  • Sweet & Sour Pork (T)
  • Shrimp Fried Rice (R)
  • Strawberries (R)
  • Granola Bar (NF)
  • Grapefruit Drink (B)
  • Tuna Salad Spread (T)
  • Crackers (NF)
  • Tea w/ Sugar (B)
8
  • Granola w/ Blueberries (R)
  • Vegetable Quiche (R)
  • Applesauce (T)
  • Pineapple Drink (B)
  • Coffee w/ C & S (B)
  • Vegetarian Vegetable Soup (T)
  • Grilled Pork Chop (T)
  • Pasta w/ Shrimp (R)
  • Peaches (T)
  • Orange-Grapefruit Drink (B)
  • Tea w/ Sugar (B)
  • Chopped Pork w/ Eggs (T)
  • Chicken w/ Rice (T)
  • Wheat Bread Enriched (IM)
  • Honey Cake (IM)
  • Milk (R)
  • Peach-Apricot Juice (B) x2
  • Green Tea w/ Sugar (B)
  • Vitamins
  • Hazelnuts (NF)
  • Kuraga (IM)
  • Apricot Juice w/ Pulp (R)
  • Tea w/o Sugar (R)
9
  • Cottage Cheese/Nuts (R)
  • Oatmeal w/ Peaches (R)
  • Apple-Black Currant Juice w/ Pulp (R) x2
  • Vostok Cookies (NF)
  • Peach Dessert (T)
  • Coffee w/o Sugar (R)
  • Vitamins
  • Zucchini Saute Noodle Soup w/ Meat (R)
  • Pan-fried Meat w/ Rice & Vegs (R)
  • Borodinskiy Bread (IM)
  • Quince Bread (IM)
  • Apricot-Apple Juice w/ Pulp (R)
  • Earl Grey Tea w/ Sugar (R)
  • Meatloaf (T)
  • Mashed Potatoes (R)
  • Berry Medley (R)
  • Butter Cookies (NF)
  • Peach-Apricot Drink (B)
  • Trail Mix (IM)
  • Pears (T)
  • Tea w/ L & S (B)
10
  • Waffle (NF)
  • Breakfast Sausage Links (I)
  • Dried Peaches (IM)
  • Orange Drink (B)
  • Coffee w/ C & S (B)
  • Minestrone Soup (T)
  • Beef Fajitas (I)
  • Tortillas (NF)
  • Apples w/ Spice (T)
  • Lemonade (B)
  • Tea w/ L & S (B)
  • Sturgeon (T)
  • Pork Loin w/ Mashed Potatoes (R)
  • Borodinskiy Bread (IM)
  • Milk (R)
  • Visit Crackers (NF)
  • Peach-Apricot Juice (R)
  • Strawberry Tea w/o Sugar (B)
  • Vitamins
  • Vostok Cookies (NF)
  • Almonds (NF)
  • Grape-Plum Juice w/ Pulp (R)
  • Tea w/o Sugar (R)

Water

There are two different systems of water supply:

An interesting fact is that the Russian and American segment water supplies can’t be mixed. The U.S. water uses iodine for bacteria control, while the Russian water uses silver. If these substances mix, a silver-iodine precipitate forms in the water, which may clog the sublimator in the NASA EMU spacesuit.

More details (LSS ISS)

Gallery

Zvezda galley table (NASA)

View of the galley table in Zvezda (affixed to the starboard side of the Service Module interior). The water dispenser is on the wall behind.

Bill McArthur rehydrates a food packet (NASA)

Bill McArthur (ISS-12) demonstrates how to add potable water to a soft beverage package.

André with food (NASA)

ESA astronaut André Kuipers near Russian and American food storage boxes located on the rear panel next to the port kayuta (cabin). They are numbered for Expeditions 7 and 8, the contents listed in English and Russian.

Links

Microgravity countermeasures

The Russian equipment to counter the effects of long-term exposure to microgravity consist of specialized equipment and exercise regimes, which are summarized here.

Exercise

If cosmonauts and astronauts wish to return to Earth in reasonable health, daily exercise is a must! People in space lose as much calcium in their bones each month as a menopausal woman does in a year, so load-bearing exercise is the only way so far to help combat this. Obviously, lifting weights is not possible in microgravity, so pulling elastic bands and aerobic exercise while secured are ways developed to allow exercise in this environment.

On the International Space Station (and previously on Mir), crew members are required to exercise for 2½ hours per day (half of this time is used for setup and post-exercise personal hygiene). This is not done in one block but divided into two sessions, usually one session aerobic (cardiovascular) and the other anerobic (muscle-loading/conditioning).

Example from an Expedition 11 timeline (17/6):

ISS crew timeline exercise schedule
Time Crewperson Activity
11:00-12:00 CDR Physical Exercise (VELO + Force Loader 1) day 1
11:05-12:05 FE-1 Physical exercise (TVIS)
16:45-18:15 FE-1 Physical exercise (RED)
16:45-18:15 CDR Physical Exercise (TVIS) Day 1
18:35-18:40 FE-1 Transfer TVIS, RED, and HRM data to MEC

Data is transferred to an onboard laptop computer and then to the ground for specialists to analyze.

The main types of exercise available on the International Space Station (as was the case on Mir) are running on a treadmill, bicycling on a cycle ergometer and resistance training using cables (lifting weights is obviously ineffective in microgravity!). The U.S. equipment on board consistes of:

Devices

Since the era of the Salyut space stations, the Russians have developed various pieces of equipment to aid cosmonauts in staying healthy during their time onboard.

Braslet
«Браслет»

The Braslet (“Bracelet”) is a set of compression cuffs and straps worn in a crewmember’s first few days of adapting to the microgravity environment. Fluid naturally tends to accumulate in the upper portions of the body away from the legs, causing some discomfort (such as stuffy sinuses) and the Braslet is used to counteract this by compressing the lower extremities and forcing blood to circulate there.

Braslet and Braslet-М units should be used during acute phase of adaptation to microgravity for prevention of its adverse effect on cardiovascular system. During operation, compression cuffs are attached to belt using pull-up straps. Belt is used to secure compression cuffs in working position on crewmember’s thighs using freely moving pull-up straps. Braslet and Braslet-М units in their working state create compression in upper thirds of crewmember’s thighs. This causes a part of circulating blood volume to relocate from upper body to lower extremities, which corrects the adverse hemodynamic effect of microgravity, thus improving crewmember’s working capability.

– Service Module Medical Operations, Book 1

Chibis
«Чибис»

The Chibis is a reduced-pressure mechanical device that provides negative pressure around the wearer’s lower body in order to assess cardiovascular fitness prior to return to Earth. (It was evidently the inspiration for the Wallace & Gromit movie, The Wrong Trousers …) Blood is forced down to the wearer’s legs, increasing the heart rate and giving the crewmember a cardiovascular workout.

Description from On-Orbit Reports:

In preparation for his return to gravity, Sasha had the first preliminary training session in the Chibis LBNP suit (lower body negative pressure; Russian: ODNT, ОДНТ), assisted by Mike Foale. [Chibis is the Russian below-the-waist reduced-pressure device designed to provide gravity-simulating stress to the body’s cardiovascular/circulatory system. The suit forms an airtight seal around the waist and applies suction to the lower body. The preparatory training generally consists of first imbibing 150-200 milliliters of water or juice, followed by a sequence of progressive regimes of reduced (“negative”) pressure, set at -15, -20, -25, and -30 mmHg (Torr) for five minutes each while shifting from foot to foot at 10-12 steps per minute, while wearing a sphygmomanometer to measure blood pressure. The body’s circulatory system interprets the pressure differential between upper and lower body as a gravity-like force pulling the blood (and other liquids) down. It prepares the body’s orthostatic tolerance (e.g., the Gauer-Henry reflex) after Sasha’s six-month stay in zero-G. Chibis data and biomed cardiovascular readings are recorded. The Chibis suit (not to be confused with the Russian Pinguin suit for spring-loaded body compression, or the Kentavr anti-g suit worn during reentry) is similar to the U.S. LBNP facility (not a suit) used for the first time on Skylab in 1973/74, although it appears to accomplish its purpose quicker.]

– ISS On-Orbit Report: 12 April 2004

It was also time for Salizhan to complete the second of two final 1.5-hr. training sessions in the Chibis ODNT suit as part of his preparations for returning into gravity, after the first session on 7/4. Since there was no telemetry downlink, his vital body readings were again obtained with the Tensoplus sphygmomanometer. A tagup with ground specialists via S-band supported the run, and Leroy Chiao assisted as CMO. [The below-the-waist reduced-pressure device ODNT (US: LBNP, Lower Body Negative Pressure) in the Chibis garment provides gravity-simulating stress to the body’s cardiovascular/circulatory system for reestablishing the body’s orthostatic tolerance (e.g., the Gauer-Henry reflex) after the six-month stay in zero-G. Salizhan’s ODNT protocol today consisted of first drinking 150-200 milliliters of water or juice, followed by a sequence of progressive regimes of reduced ( negative) pressure, set at -20, -25, -30 and -35 mmHg for five minutes each, while shifting from foot to foot at 10-12 steps per minute. The body’s circulatory system interprets the pressure differential between upper and lower body as a gravity-like force pulling the blood (and other liquids) down.]

– ISS On-Orbit Report: 12 April 2005

Kentavr
«Кентавр»

The Kentavr (“Centaur”) is a corset-like garment worn like a pair of shorts. It is tightly-laced and worn during descent to keep blood from pooling in the legs on the return to gravity (similar to a g-suit worn by fighter pilots).

Description from an On-Orbit Report:

Aboard the ISS, the crew worked on the Russian Kentavr (Centaur) garments, doing fit-checks and adjusting them for their individual sizes. The suits are kept in the habitation module of the Soyuz TMA until undock day. The activity was supported by a tagup with ground specialists via S-band. [The Russian Kentavr garment is a protective anti-g suit ensemble to facilitate the return of a long-duration crewmember into the Earth gravity. Consisting of shorts, gaiters, underpants, jersey and socks, it acts as countermeasure for circulatory disturbance, prevents crewmember from overloading during descent and increases orthostatic tolerance during post-flight adaptation. Sizing consists of adjusting lacing on the outer side of the shorts and on the inner side of the gaiters to achieve a tight fit.]

– ISS On-Orbit Report: 14 October 2004

Pingvin-3
«Пингвин-3»

The Pingvin-3 suits are light blue jumpsuits embedded with sewn-in elastic straps which provide resistance loads for the wearer in response to their arm and body movement. This provides exercise for their musculoskeletal system and thus combat the deleterious effects of microgravity. The wearer is to make periodic pedaling leg movements for 5-10 min, 6-8 times per day. The suit is replaced after 45 days of wear.

VELO VB-3
ВЕЛО ВБ-3

The VELO (from the Russian велоэргометр, veloergometr) is a stationary bike/ergometer with a load trainer. The Russian exercise device is set into Zvezda’s floor (under Panel 121). It serves as a multifunction exercise machine, and is used for various Russian fitness tests and medical experiments.

The pedals can be used for hand or foot pedaling. The latter mode is used to condition the arms and shoulders for spacewalks. During hand pedaling, the actual pedal is removed and the hands grip each pedal shaft.

The operator is strapped down to the seat with a harness.

Diagrams (from the Service Module Medical Operations, Book 1, issued by Energiya in 2000):

Gallery

Sergei exercising on the CEVIS

Sergei Krikalyov (ISS-11) on the CEVIS in the Destiny Laboratory.

Yurii Usachyov using the RED

Yurii Usachyov (ISS-2) does squats (for thighs) while strapped down to the RED with a harness in Unity Node 1.

Sergei on the TVIS

Sergei Krikalyov (ISS-11) on the TVIS at the aft end of Zvezda.

Sergei doing rows on the VELO

31 May 2005: Sergei Krikalyov (ISS-11) does arm rows on the VELO (pulling exercise for shoulder and back muscles).

Expedition 4 in Pingvin-3 conditioning suits (NASA)

Expedition 4 in Pingvin-3 countermeasures suits.

Links

Mini-Research Module-1 Rassvet

MIM-1, named Rassvet («Рассвет», “Dawn”), was built using the already-constructed hull of the Science Power Module (NEM). It has two docking units: an active probe-and-drogue one for docking to the nadir port of the Zarya module (with help from the SSRMS), and a passive one for the docking of Soyuz TMA and Progress spacecraft, providing a fourth Russian segment port for these. It has propellant lines that enable a docked Progress to refuel the Zvezda module. Its lifetime is guaranteed for 12 years.

Rassvet was formerly known as the Docking Cargo Module (SGM), Стыковочно Грузовой Модуль; it was manufactured from the residual Dynamic Test Article of the Science Power Platform (NEP), the latter being canceled due to lack of funds. NASA refers to it as MRM-1, Mini Research Module-1.

Rassvet delivery in the U.S. was on 17 December 2009, and it was launched aboard STS-132/ULF-4 on 14 May 2010.

After the docking of STS-132 Atlantis, Rassvet was relocated and docked to the nadir port of the Zarya module using the SRMS and SSRMS on 18 May, the docking ports connecting at 12:19:45 GMT. Hatches between Rassvet and the ISS were opened at 10:52 GMT on 20 May.

Cargoes from EXPRESS Logistics Carrier-3 and ELC4 will be installed onto Rassvet. Cargoes for the future MLM module were delivered on Rassvet, for example: airlock, portable workplace and the ERA manipulator’s spare elbow.

The onboard systems include:

There are five universal workplaces in the pressurized module. Four of them are equipped with the target equipment: glove box, a universal low-temperature thermostat biotechnology, universal high-temperature biotechnology thermostat, vibroprotecting platform. The fifth workstation is equipped with adapters to install scientific equipment (a special pull-out shelves module). More details from an Energiya press release:

Assembly and installation of scientific equipment for a specific task is undertaken directly in the operation of the module of the ISS. The total weight placed in the workplace of scientific equipment is more than 100 kg.

According to a 2010 Roskosmos news item, MIM-1 was quite noisy:

Skvortsov: New Russian Module Rassvet is the noisiest in the ISS, 31/8/2010

The Small Research Module (MIM-1), also known as “Breaking Dawn” and put into operation on July 27, is currently leading in terms of noise produced on board, said the commander of the ISS Alexander Skvortsov in an interview with RIA Novosti.

Questions to the astronaut were sent as part of the action “Mailbox of the ISS”, held from June 18 by the Memorial Museum of Astronautics at the All-Russian Exhibition Center with the support of the press service of Roscosmos.

“There is noise at the station, there is a constant rumble from working devices. You quickly get used to it, and soon you just stop noticing it. Although, for the sake of fairness, I can say that each module has its own noise level, but now the MIM-1 record holder vociferous,” says the commander of the ISS.

Answering the question whether he had to use individual earplugs during sleep, Skvortsov wrote: “I used to sleep without earplugs, now I decided to try – as always, there are pluses and minuses. Undoubtedly – they are quieter, but there is some discomfort, although molded individual earplugs. On earth fittings, it seemed that everything was normal, and weightlessness made adjustments. But I work without them.”

Another Russian cosmonaut Maxim Suraev, who spent half a year on the ISS, also believes that the noise level created by the operating equipment at the station is quite acceptable, and the human body eventually gets used not to perceive it. About this Suraev wrote in his orbital blog. “I must say that the station constantly hum. On Earth, my sensitivity threshold for all frequencies was almost the same. Here, at the frequencies where the station hum goes, my sensitivity dropped. Imagine that the human body adapts so easily It’s not to say that I don’t hear it, but for my ear it’s as if it’s rude, so that I’ve gotten less into my head :),” Maxim notes with satisfaction.

“Of course, there are all sorts of anti-noise things at the station: headphones, earplugs … But neither I nor Jeff (Suraev’s colleague, American astronaut Jeff Williams – Ed.) Use them. Well, look here. The other day, during my sleep the pump began to whistle in the segment. Sometimes it happens, the equipment fails. I heard it in time, and I adjusted everything. And if not, and if there is some serious ‘nestachtka’, but do I sleep here with my ears closed? hear everything,” the ISS flight engineer is confident.

At the same time, the problem of increased noise has existed since the creation of the space station, as noted by almost all cosmonauts. Low-noise fans, developed in TsAGI, will help to partially reduce its level.

The design of the fans allows to reduce the noise level by 5.5 and 8 decibels while maintaining the specified aerodynamic parameters. This is a large indicator, as at the present moment, the reduction of the noise level by one and a half to two decibels is considered to be a significant amount throughout the world.

It is assumed that the use of new low-noise fans TsAGI significantly improve the working conditions of the crews of the ISS. At the same time, new fans create high air pressure at low flow rates.

Full name: МИМ-1: Малый Исследовательский Модуль-1 «Рассвет» / MRM-1: Mini-Research Module-2 “Dawn” / MIM-1: Malnyi Issledovatel’skii Modul’-2 Rassvet

Rassvet: fundamental technical characteristics
Dry weight 4700 kilograms
Module launch mass 5075 kg (11,188 pounds)
Total launch mass 8015 kg (17,760 pounds), including 2940 kilograms (6482 pounds) of cargo (European Robotic Arm for Columbus, airlock for Multipurpose Laboratory Module and a portable workplace) on its internal and exterior stowage locations while in Atlantis’ payload bay, and 1392 kg in the pressurized module
Maximum hull diameter 2.35 meters (7.7 feet)
Hull length between docking assembly planes 6.0 meters (19.7 feet)
Pressurized volume 17.4 cubic meters (614 cubic feet)
Free internal volume 5.5 cubic meters (194.15 cubic feet) (14.5 cubic meters/511.85 cubic feet for storage of cargoes)
Habitable volume 5.85 cubic meters (207 cubic feet)

Diagrams

Gallery

MIM-1 being docked

Rassvet being transferred to its docking port by Canadarm2, 18 May 2010

MIM-1 docked

Rassvet docked, 23 May 2010

Soyuz TMA-19 spacecraft docks to Rassvet

Soyuz TMA-19 spacecraft docks to Rassvet on 28 June 2010

MIM-1 interior

Oleg Skripochka inside Rassvet, 14 December 2010

Links

Updated: 14/4/2019

Mini-Research Module-2 Poisk

MIM-2, named Poisk («Поиск», “Search”), is a second docking module similar to Pirs, and can accommodate both Soyuz and Progress spacecraft with a passive docking port (probe-and-drogue) on its outward-facing end. It will dock to Zvezda’s zenith port. It has two workplaces for scientific equipment on the module’s external surface. It was formerly known as Docking Module-2, Стыковочный Отсек-2.

In his Expedition 20 NASA preflight interview on 6 May 2009, Roman Romanenko gives some details:

Q: According to the plan currently, shortly after your arrival there is a pair of spacewalks planned for Gennady and Mike to make. Tell me about what they’ll be doing outside the station, and what you will be doing inside to support that work.

A: Yes, during our increment there will be a lot of EVA activities; in other words, spacewalks. In addition to two Russian scheduled EVAs, there will be seven or eight EVAs by the shuttle crew members. They will need to perform a lot of tasks. However, the main objective for all EVAs is to outfit the ISS with all those elements and modules and hardware units that will ensure successful operation of a six-person crew on board the ISS. EVAs that will be performed by Gennady and Mike Barratt, those EVAs will also address the tasks of outfitting the Russian segment with the new Mini Research Module #2, delivery of which is scheduled for this year. We’re hoping that we will receive this module during our mission; it is scheduled for delivery at the end of summer, beginning of the fall. It will dock to the Russian segment and Gennady, during his EVA with his U.S. colleague, will have to route cables in order to ensure docking of this module. […]

Q: Another new component for the Russian segment of the space station is due to arrive before the end of the year. It’s called the Mini Research Module 2. Can you describe what that is for us and what that will add to Russian segment operations?

A: I think that this new module will be slightly larger than the Docking Compartment. However, it will provide additional vole for various experiments on the Russian segment. It may also be used as the additional airlock for EVAs, or a connecting module for subsequent addition of a larger, another larger module to the Russian segment. The reason why the name of this new module is Mini Research Module is due to the fact that this new addition to the station will house a number of scientific experiments that will be performed under the Russian space agency science program.

Poiskdelivered 800 kg (1,764 lb) of Orlan spacesuits and life support equipment on its launch to the ISS.

Full name: МИМ-2: Малый Исследовательский Модуль-2 «Поиск» / MRM-2: Mini-Research Module-2 “Search” / MIM-2: Malnyi Issledovatel’skii Modul’-2 Poisk

Poisk: Fundamental technical characteristics
Launch mass 3670 ± 50 kg (8091 ± 110 lb)
Maximum hull diameter 2.550 m (8 ft 4 in)
Hull length between docking assembly planes 4.049 m (13 ft 3 in)
Pressurized volume 14.8 m3 (523 ft3)
Habitable volume 10.7 m3 (380 ft3)
Number of egress hatches (open inward) 2
Egress hatch diameter 1.000 m (3 ft 3 in)
Mass of delivered cargoes up to 1000 kg (2,204 lb)
Manufacturer Energiya
Designation 240GK No 2L
Launch date 10 Nov 2009 at 14:22:04 UTC
Launcher Progress M-SO2 No 302 on a Soyuz-U rocket
Docking date 12 Nov 2009 at 15:41:42 UTC

Diagrams

Gallery

Poisk in orbit

Poisk docked to the ISS, 21 November 2009

MIM-2 propulsion compartment

View of MIM-2 Propulsion Module (PAO) undocking, 7 December 2009

Links

Updated: 14/4/2019

Progress cargo ship variants

The original Progress, numbers 1 to 42, made flights to the space stations Salyut 6, 7 and Mir (one launched as Cosmos-1669 with an antenna system called «Игла», “Needle,” actually making 43 flights). There were 67 flights for the Progress M version, 11 times for the Progress M1 version, 12 times for Progress M-M and three times in special cases (Scientific Laboratory «Гамма», “Gamma” in 1990, Progress M-SO1 in 2001 and Progress M-MIM2 in 2009). The two versions currently in use are the Progress M and M1. Both versions are used to supply the ISS.

The table below (from somewhere in the Novosti Kosmonavtiki forum) lists the variants that have flown.

Progress types
Spaceship
Корабли		 Ship modification
Модификации корабля		 Beginning of operation
Начало эксплуатации		 Launches
Запуски
Progress Original version 1978 43
Progress M First modification 1989 53
Progress M-VDU Second modification 1992 2
Progress M1 Third modification 2000 11
Progress M-SO1 Fourth modification 2001 1
Progress M/M1 Fifth modification 2006 In use

Two comparison tables for the Progress M and M1.

Progress M and M1 performance data
Performance Progress-M Progress M1
Mass, kg
Spaceship Mass 7020-7320 7200-7420
Cargo Dry Mass 2100-2620 2230-2450
Cargo Mass (in cargo module) up to 1800 up to 1800
Rodnik Tanks Water Mass up to 420
Propellant Mass up to 1150 up to 1950
Orbital Module Gas Mass up to 50 up to 40
Orbit Parameters
Height, km up to 400 up to 460
Inclination, deg 51.6 51.6
Overall Dimensions, mm
Spaceship Maximum Length 7230 7230
Spaceship Maximum Diameter 2720 2720
Equipment Bay Diameter 2100 2100
Solar Batteries Span 10,700 10,700
Cargo Module Length 2406 2406
Cargo Module Overall Diameter 2200 2200
Docking Hatch Diameter 800 800
Three Additional Hatches Diameter 470 470
Delivered/Disposal Cargo Dimensions, mm
Rectangle Diameter and Diagonal less than 750 less than 750
Length 1500 1500
Delivered/Disposal Cargo Mass, kg
Fixed on Frames up to 200 up to 200
Packed in Containers up to 50 up to 50
Disposal Cargo Total Mass, kg
In Cargo Module up to 1500 up to 1500
Liquid Waste Mass up to 420
Progress payloads
Category Progress M Progress M-1
Total payload limit 2350 kg 2230-3200 kg
Maximum pressurized (dry) cargo 1800 kg 1800 kg
Maximum water 420 kg up to 300 kg in cargo module
Maximum air or oxygen 50 kg 40 kg
Maximum propellant for refuelling 850 kg 1700 kg (up to 1950 kg max)
Propellant surplus available to the Station 250 kg 185-250 kg
Amount of rubbish disposal in the Cargo Module 1000-1600 kg 1000-1600 kg
Waste water 400 kg In Cargo Module
Cargo volume 6.6 m³ 6.6m³
Main modifications of Progress transport cargo spacecraft
Name: Progress Progress-M Progress-M1
Designation: 7K-TG 7K-TGM 7K-TGM1
Maiden launch: 20 Jan 1978 23 Aug 1989 1 Feb, 2000
Total launched: 43 (series is closed in 1990) 48 (on April 2004) 11 (on April 2004)
Key features: Automated TKG, developed on the basis of Soyuz manned spacecraft Automated TKG, with unified main systems as for Soyuz-TM manned spacecraft. Presence of solar panel increases margin of self-sufficiency. Added a teleoperator mode of control from board of orbital station (TORU) Automated TKG, specially modified to deliver fuel components to the ISS
Total mass of delivered payload, kg: up to 2300 up to 2620 up to 2450
Limit mass for components, kg
in cargo compartment: up to 1400 up to 1800 up to 1800
propellant components: up to 870 up to 1150 up to 1950
gas: up to 50 up to 50 up to 40
water:: up to 420 up to 420 up to 220

Variants

Original Progress

The first Progress, Progress 1, launched on 20 January 1978 to Salyut 6. The Progress relied on internal batteries for power, not solar panels.

Progress M

The modernized Progress M first launched on 23 August 1989 to Mir. The modernization was primarily of the flight control systems.

Progress M-1

The Progress M-1 version was a modified version that enabled the delivery of more fuel to the ISS for the orbital boosting and maneuvering systems. The tanks were fitted into the middle section while the water tanks were moved into the front Cargo Module. The extra fuel means less water can be carried, though:

Since the shuttle fuel cells generate water as a byproduct of electricity generation, the space shuttle was to deliver all water to ISS, hence the development of the Progress M-1 which replaced the water tanks with additional fuel. After the Columbia accident, Russia reverted to the Progress M to deliver water to ISS while the shuttle fleet was grounded. Perhaps they could have reverted to the M-1 after return-to-flight, but the announcement of shuttle retirement in 2010 has understandably made them reluctant to do so.

– NSF forum

The M-1 first launched on 1 February 2000 to the International Space Station. It also has a new digital flight control system and new version of the Kurs automated rendezvous & docking system (Kurs-MM). Twelve tanks filled with a nitrogen-oxygen mix for the Station’s atmosphere are fitted around the outside, between the Refuelling and Propellant modules.

Progress MSO-1

The Progress M-SO1 version was a specially-modified version used to launch the Pirs docking module on 14 September 2001. The Pirs module replaced the standard cargo and fuel sections of the Progress. (SO, Стыковочный Отсек, Docking Module.)

Progress M-VDU

The Progress M-VDU version was a specially-modified version of the Progress-M used twice to launch the VDU propulsion unit to the Mir Space Station. The VDU module replaced the standard fuel section (OKD). On 15 August 1992 Progress M-14 (serial 209) was launched with the first VDU for installation on the end of the Sofora girder on the Kvant-1 module. The second VDU was launched with Progress M-38 (serial 238) on 14 March 1998 as a replacement for the old unit. (ВДУ, Выносная Двигательная Установка – VDU, Vynosnaya Dvigatel’naya Ustanovka, External Engine Unit) (Thanks to Marcel Stuij for info!)

Progress M-XXM

The designation Progress M-XXM (where XX = 01, 02, 03 etc.) has been chosen for Progress M cargo ships with a new onboard computer, TsVM-101, a digital telemetry system. Currently the Progress M cargo ships use an old onboard computer, Argon-16. Progress M-01M (No. 401) launched on 26 November 2008.

Progress M-15M launched on 20 April 2012 with a new Kurs-NA (NA, НА – новая активная, Novaya Aktivnaya, New Active) docking system that featured upgraded electronics and used less power; it was developed by the Research Institute of Precision Instruments (NII TP, НИИ ТП ).

Progress MS

This variant is to test various components of the modified Soyuz TMA-MS spaceship before the latter’s flight in 2016. The first in the series, Progress MS-01, was launched on a Soyuz-2-1a rocket on 21 December 2015.

Numbering

The Progress numbering system is somewhat complex. 11F615A55 is the article number and 7K-TGM is the manufacturer’s designation. The ships are also given serial numbers:

(Via Rui Barbosa at NASASpaceflight.com)

Updated: 23/12/2015

Soyuz ASU

Some information about the Soyuz ASU, toilet – a somewhat indelicate but necessary topic!

The waste disposal system functions similarly to the ISS toilet in the Russian segment – using a vacuum system – though everything is necessarily more compact. It resides in the Soyuz Orbital Module. The descriptions below are derived from those at Charles Simonyi’s site (I can’t link to the relevant pages directly as it is a Flash-animated site – grrr!).

For urination (with the control panel switch set to #1) a replaceable funnel is used. The waste is sucked into a collection tank (there are ten in the module), and the air circulates through a charcoal filter before being sent back into the cabin. According to this post at CollectSPACE.com, “women use a sanitary-napkin-type pad which absorbs fluid,” which doesn’t sound too appealing! If the electric air pump fails, a device with a rubber-bulb handpump serves as a backup.

For defecation (switch set to #2), a disposable bag is put into a container, which has an air suction tube connected to the container (the airflow goes through the bag and a charcoal filter). A carton cover needs to be removed from the bag before insertion; it contains some sanitizing chemicals and toilet paper (the latter is also removed). The user positions the device against their posterior. After finishing, a string around the edge of the bag snaps a rolled rubber cover into place, hermetically sealing the contents. After securely tying it with rubber ties (similar to the ones used to tie up the lining of the Sokol spacesuit), the bag insert is removed and put into another rubberized bag. This is placed into yet another bag, hermetically sealed and placed in a waste container with other rubbish (it will all burn up when the Orbital Module is discarded upon descent).

SoyCOM Manual: Ассенизационно-Санитарная Установка (АСУ) (Waste Management System)

АСУ function is collection, isolation and stowage of the crew’s physiological wastes.

АСУ composition:

In the БО:

In the СА:

АСУ Technical Characteristics:

Diagrams & photo links

Some photos of the Soyuz toilet at Skorina.com: 03.24 20Jun00; 03.25 20Jun00; 05.06 21Jun00.

The following diagrams are from « Когда невесомость в тягость, о чем молчат космонавты» (“When weightlessness is a burden, about which the cosmonauts keep silent”), Russian Popular Mechanics, June 2006 – on the development of Russian space toilets. (Thanks to “Captain David” for finding this!)

Gallery

Soyuz loo (African in Space)

“This charming layout shows a Soyuz space toilet. Primitive, but apparently quite effective. In general the crews try not to have to use the solid waste receptacle on trips to and back from the ISS.”

Soyuz toilet components (Charles in Space)

Soyuz toilet components (Charles in Space)

Soyuz console

Fighter jet and spaceship cockpits seem to fascinate me and that of the Soyuz is no exception; unfortunately there are no detailed diagrams or manuals publically-available on the Internet that I know of!

The following diagrams are ones I have collected from various places, and are the best I can do at the moment.

The Soyuz TM Information Display System is called the “Neptune,” «Нептун»; for the TMA it is the Neptune ME. Some of the buttons and controls on the console can’t be reached without a stick to poke at them! The stick is called Указател, Ukazatel, “Pointer”. (The Space Shuttle equvalent was nicknamed the “Swizzle Stick” – both can be seen in a Twitpic by Chris Hadfield.)

The computer used on the Soyuz is called Argon, «Аргон». The version on the TMA is the Argon-16. From TMA-13 a new computer, the TsVM-101, ЦВМ-101, will be used.

Some of the Russian translations below are uncertain or unclear (I couldn’t find exact definitions for them).

Soyuz

Soyuz 7K console

SOI “Sirius” for the Soyuz 7K and Soyuz A8 spaceships

  1. Command-alarm devices.
  2. Navigation indicator.
  3. Console alarm.
  4. Cylinder pressure indicator.
  5. Digital information input unit.
  6. Program controls indicator.
  7. Combined electronic indicator.
  8. Distance and speed indicator.
  9. Time.
  10. Cabin parameters indicator.
  11. Pressure and electric current indicator.

СОИ «Сириус» кораблей – Союз-7К», Союз-А8»

  1. Командно-сигнальные устройства.
  2. Навигационный индикатор.
  3. Табло сигнальное.
  4. Индикатор давления в баллонах.
  5. Блок ввода цифровой информации.
  6. Индикатор контроля программ.
  7. Комбинированный электронный индикатор.
  8. Индикатор расстояния и скорости.
  9. Часы.
  10. Индикатор параметров кабины.
  11. Индикатор напряжения и тока.

Soyuz T

Soyuz T console

Descent module console SOI “Neptune” for the Soyuz T spaceship

  1. Voltage and current indicator.
  2. Indicator and manual information input unit for the onboard computer.
  3. KEI – Integrated? Electronic Indicator. (Meaning uncertain for комбини-рованный)
  4. Navigation position indicator.
  5. Command-alarm panels with matrix selection of the control objects.
  6. KEI signal parameter unit.
  7. Important commands buttons.
  8. Alarm panels.
  9. Fuel consumption indicator.
  10. Clock.

Пульт спускаемого аппарата СОИ «Нептун» кораблей «Союз Т»

  1. Индикатор напряжения и тока.
  2. Индикатор и пульт ручного ввода информации в ЭВМ.
  3. КЭИ – комбини-рованный электронный индикатор.
  4. Навигационный индикатор.
  5. Командно-сигнальные пульты с матричным избиранием объектов управления.
  6. Блок вызова параметров на КЭИ.
  7. Кнопки особоважных команд.
  8. Сигнальные табло.
  9. Счетчик расхода топлива.
  10. Часы.

Soyuz TM

Soyuz TM console

The SOI “Neptune” console for the Soyuz TM Descent Module is the same as for the Soyuz T, but the KEI dial has been replaced by an electronic display. The clock is electronic.

Пульт спускаемого аппарата СОИ «Нептун» кораблей «Союз-ТМ». Приборы те же, что на рис. «Союз Т», кроме часов и КЭИ. КЭИ без шкального устройства Шкалы формируются электронным способом. Часы электронные.

Soyuz TMA

Soyuz TMA console

Descent module PSA console SOI “Neptune” for the Soyuz TMA spaceship

  1. INPU command unit.
  2. Color VGA monitor.
  3. Alarm and safety devices (circuit breakers).
  4. Voltage meter.
  5. Sokol suit fans.
  6. Status indicators.
  7. Monochrome VGA monitor.
  8. Critical command buttons.

Пульт ПСА спускаемого аппарата СОИ «Нептун» корабля «Союз ТМА»

  1. Блок управления маркером.
  2. Цветной VGA монитор.
  3. Предохранители и сигнализация.
  4. Индикатор напряжения.
  5. Тумблеры вентиляторов.
  6. Табло.
  7. Монохромный VGA-монитор.
  8. Кнопки особоважных команд.

Details from a page at the manufacturer’s site:

Configuration

Specifications

Diagrams

Links

Soyuz launch escape system

The Soyuz launch escape system has the acronym САС, SAS (Система Аварийного Спасения, Sistema Avariynogo Spaseniya) and is activated should anything go wrong on the launch pad, or on the ride into orbit. It is attached to the shroud covering the Soyuz spaceship during launch. The main events that would trigger the system during launch are loss of control, premature booster stage separation, loss of pressure in the combustion chambers, lack of velocity and loss of thrust.

The system can also be triggered from the ground by remote radio control (КРЛ, Командная Радиолиния, Komandnaya Radioliniya – Command Radio-Line). The command is sent from the Kvant ground control station at Site 23, 30 kilometers away from the Soyuz launch site.

The SAS is activated and ready from 15 minutes before launch to 157 seconds from launch. On activation, three floating struts on the payload fairing fixate to the lower structural ring of the Soyuz Descent Module to transfer loads from the payload fairing. The main escape motors fire for 2-6 seconds, taking with them the top two sections of the Soyuz spaceship (Habitation and Descent Modules; the Instrumentation Module remains with the rest of the rocket). The rockets can lift the SAS to a height of 1-1.5 kilometers from the ground. The Descent Module is then disconnected from the fairing, a separation motor fires and the Descent Module falls out of the bottom of the fairing, deploys its parachute and lands in the normal manner.

This extract from Mir Hardware Heritage describes the only time the SAS has been used, so far:

Refer to figure 1-29. Shortly before liftoff, fuel spilled around the base of the Soyuz launch vehicle and caught fire. Launch control activated the escape system, but the control cables had already burned. The crew could not activate or control the escape system, but 20 sec later, ground control was able to activate the escape system by radio command. By this time the booster was engulfed in flames. Explosive bolts fired to separate the descent module from the service module and the upper launch shroud from the lower. Then the escape system motor fired, dragging the orbital module and descent module, encased within the upper shroud, free of the booster at 14 to 17 g’s of acceleration. Acceleration lasted 5 sec. Seconds after the escape system activated, the booster exploded, destroying the launch complex (which was, incidentally, the one used to launch Sputnik 1 and Vostok 1). Four paddle-shaped stabilizers on the outside of the shroud opened. The descent module separated from the orbital module at an altitude of 650 m, and dropped free of the shroud. It discarded its heat shield, exposing the solid-fuelled land landing rockets, and deployed a fast-opening emergency parachute. Landing occurred about 4 km from the launch pad. The aborted mission is often called Soyuz T-10a in the West. This was the last failed attempt to date to reach a space station to date.

Soyuz abort sequence

An account from Leaving Earth by Robert Zimmerman:

It was not to be. Ninety seconds before blast-off, with Titov and Strekalov waiting at the top of their fully-fueled Soyuz rocket, a fuel valve at the base of the rocket malfunctioned, opening and spilling fuel uncontrollably onto the launchpad. A fire broke out and flames engulfed the rocket with its 180 tons of very flammable fuel. At that moment, the automatic launch-escape system should had kicked in, executing the following steps: First, explosive bolts fire, flinging the Soyuz T capsule free of the three-stage rocket. One second later, solid-fuel engines in a tower attached to the top of the capsule ignite, lifting the Soyuz T orbital module and descent module away and clear. Five seconds after that, more explosive bolts fire to separate the manned descent module from everything else. Its parachutes then release and its retro-rockets fire, slowing the capsule enough for a safe landing.

The automatic launch-escape system did not kick in, however. The fire had burned the system’s wiring, preventing it from being activated automatically. Feeling strange vibrations and seeing black smoke and yellow flames outside their window, Titov and Strekalov tried to fire the launch-escape system manually, only to get no response. To fire the escape system manually from mission control required each of two different operators, located in two separate rooms, to press separate buttons at the same time. With flames rising from the launchpad and the entire rocket already leaning 20 degrees to the side, controllers scrambled madly to get the system to free.

Just 10 seconds after the flames first appeared, controllers miraculously managed to somehow do this, activating the escape system and throwing Titov, Strekalov and the Soyuz T capsule more than 3000 feet into the air. For five seconds the emergency engines fired, subjecting the two men to forces exceeding 15 g’s. Then the engines cut off, the descent module separated, and its parachutes unfolded.

At that moment, the entire rocket and launchpad exploded. The blast was so intense that the capsule, three miles away, was thrown sideways, and launchpad workers in underground bunkers felt the pressure wave.

Strekalov and Titov landed safely, their capsule hitting the ground with a hard bump that shook both men up but did them no damage. Rescuers quickly pulled them from the capsule, then gave them a glass of vodka to calm their nerves as everyone watched the nearby launchpad crumble in flames and clouds of smoke. It took 20 hours to put the fires out.

Soyuz abort parameters
Breakout altitude in the event of launch failure 850 meters
Breakout distance in the event of launch failure 110 m
G-load on humans
  • during EDS operations, no more than: 10 g
  • in emergency 400 seconds into the mission: 21 (K = 0)
Initial mass of separating nose section, not more than 7635 kg
Total EDS thruster burns 123 TF-S
Maximum EDS thruster propulsion unit thrust 76 TF

SoyCOM: 3.20. Система Аварийного Спасения (САС) (Launch Escape System)

CAC system purpose and composition

The CAC System is designed for bringing the crew modules away from the failed Launch Vehicle and providing conditions for guarantied operation of the landing aids while at the launch site and in the orbit injection phase.

The system is fully automatic. In case of the Launch Vehicle failure the “АВАРИЯ НОСИТЕЛЯ” ( Launch Vehicle Failure) red light illuminates (ТСЭ-3) and also the Central Light goes ON and the intermittent audio signal sounds.

Having received these signals the crew reports to the Launch Control and prepares to withstand the accelerations associated with the launch escape procedures.

General CAC System design is shown in Fig.1.

The CAC System consists of:

Двигательная Установка САС (ДУ САС) (CAC Propulsion System)

The ДУ САС is an active aid which enables the spacecraft rescued part to escape in case of the Launch Vehicle failure both at the launch site and in the orbit injection phase.

The ДУ САС consists of:

The ЦРД engine is designed for the spacecraft crew module (БО-СА) escape from the failed Launch Vehicle and climb up to the altitude necessary for the parachute system operation in case of emergency at the launch site or in launch vicinity conditions.

The УРД thrusters are designed for executing the preset spacecraft crew module escape trajectory in case of emergency at the launch site or in the vicinity of the launch site.

The РДР thrusters are designed for executing the evasive trajectory of the CAC System after its nominal jettison in the spacecraft orbit injection phase. The РДР thrusters are also used to take the Cap+БО cluster away from the CA at the climb portion of the spacecraft rescued part launch escape trajectory.

Apart from the ДУ САС Propulsion System the following thrusters are located on the Aerodynamic Cap:

The РДГ thrusters are designed for raising the climb altitude of the spacecraft rescued part in case of emergency in launch vicinity conditions and also for taking the rescued part away in the orbit injection phase after the ЦРД nominal jettison and prior to the Cap jettison.

The ДСС thrusters are designed for taking the Cap sections away from the spacecraft during its nominal jettison procedure in the orbit injection phase.

Crew Module Aerodynamic Cap

The Crew Module Aerodynamic Cap is the structural base for the escaping crew modules.

CAC System Automatic Equipment

The CAC Automatic Equipment is designed for joint operation with the spacecraft and the Launch Vehicle systems in generating signals and executing commands for the crew module escape from the failed Launch Vehicle in case of emergency at the launch site or in the orbit injection flight phase.

CAC system operational procedure

The CAC System total operational period is subdivided into six portions:

  1. From the moment of the “Взведение САС” (CAC arming) command for configuring the CAC System for operation up to the “КП” (контакт подъема – Lift-Off Contact).
  2. From the “КП” up to 20 seconds of flight elapsed time.
  3. From the FET 20 s up to the ДУ САС jettison programmed time.
  4. From the ДУ САС programmed jettison up to the Cap (ГО) jettison.
  5. From the ГО programmed jettison up to the “ПО” (предварительное отделение – preliminary separation) command.
  6. From the “ПО” command up to the Launch Vehicle 3rd stage Propulsion System Shut Off command. First Portion Procedure

In this CAC System operational period portion the emergency signal can be issued only by the Launch Director via the КРЛ system from the Launch Control vault.

On receiving the “Авария” (Emergency) signal the following commands are issued:

In 1.8 s after the “Авария” signal is issued the УРД thrusters are fired under the program control which depends on the wind direction and the location of the launch facilities.

In 4 s after the “Авария” the РДГ thrusters are fired.

At the escape trajectory peak the САС Automatic Equipment issues commands:

After the ВСК jettison the a РДР thruster is fired and carries the Cap+БО cluster away from the СА so as to prevent their collision. At the preset time moment the parachute system is put to operation and follows a reduced time program.

Second Portion Procedure

This portion features low flight altitudes. So the failed Launch Vehicle Propulsion System is not cut off to carry the Launch Vehicle away from the launch facilities as far as possible. The parachute system operates under the control of reduced time programs.

Third Portion Procedure

When the “Авария” signal arrives the following commands are issued:

  1. The Launch Vehicle Propulsion System emergency ignition;
  2. Execution of all the commands according to the First portion program of the CAC operation with exceptions:
    • only the first ЦРД chamber is ignited (the altitude clearance is sufficient for the КСП complex operation;
    • the РДГ is not fired (altitude sufficient for the КСП operation);
    • only one УРД thruster is burnt, the one located in plane II.

At the preset moment the КСП Complex is put to operation.

Fourth Portion Procedure

This portion’s peculiar feature consists in using the РДГ thrusters as active aid for the crew module escape. On the “Авария” signal the spacecraft is separated at the СА-ПАО interface and two РДГ thrusters are ignited. In 0,32 s after the “Авария” command the second РДГ thruster group is ignited to take the crew modules away from the failed Launch Vehicle trajectory. According to the preset program the CAC automatic equipment issues commands for the ВСК jettison and for the СА/БО separation.

At the preset moment the КСП Complex is put to operation following the nominal time program.

Fifth Portion Procedure

There are no active aids used in this portion for the crew module evasive maneuver away from the failed Launch Vehicle. So the nominal spacecraft separation aids are employed. On the “Авария” signal the САС automatic equipment issues commands for the Launch Vehicle Propulsion System emergency cut off and for the spacecraft crew module nominal separation. The КСП operation follows the nominal time program.

Sixth Portion Procedure

It is this portion’s peculiarity, that in case of emergency separation the spacecraft injection to off-nominal orbits is possible. So based on the long duration (>30 min) crew life support requirement for the offnominal orbit flight the crew rescue is executed within the integrated spacecraft. On the “Авария” signal the CAC automatic equipment translate command for the spacecraft nominal separation from the Launch Vehicle 3rd stage. The separation is accomplished followed by the spacecraft descent. The integrated spacecraft separation is executed nominally at the atmosphere reentry. The spacecraft landing aids operate on the nominal program.

Fig. 1. CAC System Diagram:

  1. Stabilizer.
  2. I-III, II-IV – Stabilization Planes.
  3. View A:
    • БГ – Balance Weight;
    • УРД – Attitude Control Thrusters;
    • РДР – Separation Thrusters;
    • ДУ САС – CAC Propulsion System;
    • ЦРД – Central Rocket Engine;
    • ГО – Aerodynamic Cap;
    • ДСС – Section Jettison Thrusters;
    • ВО – Upper Support;
    • РДГ – Cap Thrusters;
    • БО – Habitable (Crew Resting) Module;
    • СА – Descent Module;
    • НО – Lower Support;
    • ВСК – Cosmonaut Visual System.

Diagrams

Gallery

Soyuz escape tower (NASA)

Closeup of Soyuz rocket launch escape tower.

Links

Soyuz features

On this page are described a few features of the Soyuz spaceship that are too brief to have their own dedicated pages.

Cost

From ESA’s News From Moscow newsletter, Issue 7, 2005:

The cost of Soyuz manned ships for NASA, in case the United States decides to buy them from Russia for safety insurance of the ISS crews, may come up to 400 million rubles (~14.5 million at $1=R27.7 rate), the Russian Space Agency chief Anatoly Perminov said in the RIA Novosti interview.

In Russia a Soyuz costs about 400 million rubles plus the same price of its launch vehicle, which totals 800 million rubles. “For the United States the price will be about that,” Perminov noted.

Docking system

From the Mir Hardware Heritage PDF document by David Portree (in NASA’s Shuttle-Mir history):

Soyuz internal transfer docking unit. This system [was used] for docking spacecraft to Mir. The active craft inserts its probe into the space station receiving cone. The probe tip catches on latches in the socket at the apex of the cone. Motors then draw the two spacecraft together. Latches in the docking collars catch, and motors close them. Fluid, gas, and electrical connections are established through the collars. After the cosmonauts are certain the seal is airtight, they remove the probe and drogue units, forming a tunnel between spacecraft and station. At undocking, four spring push rods drive the spacecraft apart. If the latches fail to retract, the spacecraft can fire pyrotechnic bolts to detach from the station.

The Soyuz TMA uses the same system for ISS dockings.

Soyuz docking system diagram

Kazbek-U seat fittings

Each cosmonaut has their own moulded seat liner fitted and made for them before the mission. These need to be swapped over with the returning crew’s during a crew changeover mission. Expedition crews on long missions also need to do periodic fit checks (as there is no gravity to compress their intervertebral disks, these expand, also stretching the muscles in their backs and increasing their height by a few centimeters). From the 7 July 2004 On-Orbit Report:

The two crewmembers conducted the standard fit check of the “Kazbeks,” the contoured shock absorbing seats in the Soyuz 8S descent capsule (SA). This required them to don their Sokol pressure suits, get in their seats and use a ruler to measure the gap between the top of the head and the top edge of the structure facing the head. The results were reported to TsUP. Kazbek-U couches are designed to withstand g-loads during launch and orbital insertion as well as during reentry and brake-rocket-assisted landing. Each seat has two positions: cocked (armed) and non-cocked. In the cocked position, they are raised to allow the shock absorbers to function during touchdown. The fit check assures that the crewmember whose body gains in length during longer-term stay in zero-G, will still be adequately protected by the seat liners for their touchdown in Kazakhstan.

Simulators

As listed in Simulators of manned spacecrafts at GCTC at NASASpaceflight.com, the simulators are:

The TDK-7ST Simulator is intended for preparation of crewmen for Soyuz control at all stages of flight in regular modes and emergencies with imitation of work of all onboard systems.

The Don-Soyuz Simulator is intended for training of hand control of Soyuz in following modes: rendezvous, approach and docking with ISS and its modules; approach without Kurs radio engineering system of rendezvous with radar.

The Teleoperator Simulator is intended for preparation of cosmonauts on manual remote piloting mode TORU of approach and docking of Progress cargo ships and modules with ISS, and monitoring of ESA’s ATV docking.

Two views of the Simulator Hall, December 2009: 1, 2.

Ugly Posadky

Each day on orbit, a “Form 14” is radiogrammed up to the crew with the Ugly Posadky, угли посадкы, landing angles, for that day’s Soyuz de-orbit opportunities, in case the crew have to make an emergency evacuation and thus need the co-ordinates for re-entry. The times are printed in six-figure groups of hours, minutes and seconds. During these times the Soyuz can safely re-enter the atmosphere at a predetermined angle; too steep an angle and the capsule will burn up; too shallow and it will bounce off the atmosphere and head off into the void.

From 10 August 2004 On-Orbit Report:

Padalka and Fincke had three hours set aside to conduct the Soyuz emergency descent (срочный спуск, srochnyi spusk) training exercise, standard procedure for each crew depending on the Soyuz as a CRV (crew rescue vehicle). The exercise, which strictly forbids any command activation (except for switching the Soyuz InPU display), was supported by a tagup with ground experts at TsUP/Moscow via U.S. S-band. [The training session included a review of the pertinent ODF (operational data files), specifically the books on Soyuz Insertion & Descent Procedures, Emergency (Rapid) Descents, and Off-Nominal Situation Procedures.]

Soyuz landing profile

In contrast to the two-day journey to the ISS, a Soyuz undocking and landing only takes approximately 3.5 hours. Only the Descent Module (SA, СА) makes it to Earth as the other two modules are discarded enroute – the Orbital Module (BO, БО) is released about three hours after undocking, and the Instrumentation/Propulsion Module (PAO, ПАО) is discarded at the same time, after it has performed the deorbit burn. The SA has a secondary guidance, navigation and control system that enables the crew to retain maneuverability. The usual landing zone for a nominal landing is in central Kazakhstan, near the town of Arkhalyk.

Timeline

Soyuz undocking & landing timeline
Undocking −00:00 minutes; landing −03:23:00 hours Separation command to begin opening hooks and latches, which hold the Soyuz spacecraft to a docking port on the Space Station
Undocking +03:00; landing −03:20:00 Hooks opened. Soyuz begins physical separation from the Pirs docking compartment at 0.1 meters per second
Undocking +06:00; landing −03:17:00 A 15-second separation burn when the Soyuz is about 20 meters from the Station
Undocking +02:29; landing −00:54:00 When the Soyuz is at a distance of about 19 km from the ISS, the engines fire for a 4-minute, 21-second deorbit burn
Undocking +02:57; landing −00:26 The unoccupied Orbital Module separates from the Descent Module and burns up upon re-entry into the atmosphere
Undocking +03:00; landing −00:23 The Soyuz reaches Entry Interface – 121,920 meters in altitude – 31 minutes after the deorbit burn
Undocking +03:08; landing −00:15 Parachutes are commanded to deploy. Two Pilot Parachutes are deployed, the second of which extracts the Drogue Chute. The Drogue slows the spacecraft’s descent from a rate of 230 meters per second to 80 meters per second.

The Main Parachute is then released. It slows the Soyuz to a descent rate of 7.2 meters per second. First, its harnesses allow the Soyuz to descend at an angle of 30 degrees to expel heat, then it shifts the Soyuz to a straight vertical descent.
Landing −00:02 Six Soft Landing Engines fire to slow the vehicle’s descent rate to 1.5 meters per second just 0.8 meters above the ground
Undocking +03:23 Soyuz lands

Below are descriptions of Soyuz landings, from various sources.

Events sequence

What will the Soyuz TMA-2/6S crew (Expedition 7 + Pedro Duque) encounter during reentry/descent?

On descent day (10/27)

Special attention will be paid to the need for careful donning of the medical belt with sensors and securing tight contact between sensors and body.

During preparation for descent, before atmosphere reentry, the crew should settle down comfortably in the seat, fasten the belts, securing tight contact between body and the seat liner in the couch.

During de-orbit

Dust particles starting to sink in the Descent Module cabin is the first indication of atmosphere reentry and beginning of G-load effect. From that time on, special attention is required as the loads increase rapidly.

Under G-load effect during atmosphere reentry the crew can expect the following sensations:

Sensation of G-load pressure on the body, “burden in the body,” labored breathing and speech. These are normal sensations, and the advice is to “take them coolly”. In case of the feeling of a “lump in the throat,” this is no cause to “be nervous”. This is frequent and should not be fought. Best is to “try not to swallow and talk at this moment”. Crew should check vision and, if any disturbances occur, create additional tension of abdominal pressure and leg muscles (strain abdomen by pulling in), in addition to the “Kentavr” anti-G suit.

During deployment of drogue and prime parachutes the impact accelerations will be perceived as a “strong snatch”. No reason to become concerned about this but one should be prepared that during the parachutes deployment and change of prime parachute to symmetrical suspension swinging and spinning motion of the Descent Module occurs, which involves vestibular (middle ear) irritations.

It is important to tighten restrain system to fasten pelvis and pectoral arch. Vestibular irritation can occur in the form of different referred sensations such as vertigo, hyperhidrosis, postural illusions, general discomfort and nausea. To prevent vestibular irritation the crew should “limit head movement and eyes movement,” as well as fix their sight on motionless objects.

Just before the landing (softened by six small rocket engines behind the heat shield): Crew should be prepared for the vehicle impact with the ground, with their bodies fixed along the surface of the seat liner in advance. “Special attention should be paid to arm fixation to avoid the elbow and hand squat”.

After landing

Crew should not get up quickly from their seats to leave the Descent Module. They are advised to stay in the couch for several minutes and only then stand up. In doing that, they should limit head and eyes movement and avoid excessive motions, proceeding slowly. They and their body should not take up Earth gravity in the upright position too quickly.

– Source: 17 October 2003 On-Orbit Status Report.

Undocking events

At the ISS, hatches were closed at 1:45 p.m. EDT [U.S. Eastern Daylight Time = UTC −4 hours] and tunnel leak checks performed at 2:05 p.m. With that, the return to Earth of Soyuz TMA-3/7S with Michael Foale, Alexander Kaleri & André Kuipers is ready to proceed along the following event sequence (all times EDT):

– Source: 29 April 2004 On-Orbit Status Report.

If undocking from the nadir port of Pirs, the ISS is maneuvered to the Y-axis in the Velocity Vector position (Zvezda pointing downwards; the Truss parallel with the Earth) – see Motion control & navigation.

Descent modes

There are 3 different types of descent profiles for the Soyuz. The normal type of landing is a controlled descent, where the automation software constantly orients the descent vehicle by its flat lower part to the Earth, ensuring lift due to the incidental airflow, and also inflicting minimum overloads on the crew up to 4 gravities. If for whatever reason the automation fails (as has happened in the TMA series to date with Soyuz TMA-1, TMA-10 and TMA-11) a backup program prompts the capsule to enter on a shorter and more severe ballistic trajectory. The capsule is rotated around its axis to mimimize the g-forces on the crew (it would otherwise fall like a stone and possibly kill them), though they still experience up to 8.5 g’s.

The descriptions below have been taken from the SoyCOM Manual.

Automatically-Controlled Descent
Автоматический Управляемый Спуск

The AUS (Avtomaticheskii Upravlyaemyi Spusk) mode is the nominal and preferred descent mode, where the spacecraft lands in a preselected landing area. The crew input the trajectory before descent, and the onboard computer takes care of the actual descent.

The spacecraft/station undocking occurs 1.5 revolutions prior to the engine fire. The spacecraft undocks and the spring pushers accelerating the spacecraft up to the velocity of 0.12-0.15 m/s. When the separation range reaches the value of ρ=20-25 m the ДПО-Б, DPO-B thrusters are fired for 8 s accelerating the separation range rate up to 0.5 m/s. In 1.5 revolutions the spacecraft is above and behind the ISS.

Soyuz TMA-8 nominal descent g-profile (September 29, 2006) – the gravitational forces the crew experience on the way down (via NASASpaceflight.com forum):

Soyuz descent profile (TMA-8)
Beginning of deorbit burn (00:23:53 UTC, 353.5 km, 7.397 km/sec) 0g;
Ending of deorbit burn (00:28:12 UTC, 341.9 km, 7.298 km/sec) 0.05g;
Separation of modules (00:47:31 UTC, 140.1 km, 7.545 km/sec) 0g;
Entry into atmosphere (00:50:25 UTC, 102.3 km, 7.591 km/sec) 0g;
Beginning of computer control (00:52:10 UTC, 80.3 km, 7.594 km/sec) 0.09g;
Maximum g-load (00:57:01 UTC, 33.2 km, 1.964 km/sec) 3.96g;
Command of parachute deploying (00:58:54 UTC, 10.8 km, 213 m/sec) 1.17g;
Landing (01:13:21 UTC, 0 m, 0 m/sec) 1g

Manually-Controlled Descent
Ручное Управление Спуском

The crew can transfer to the RUS (Ruchnoe Upravlenie Spuskom) mode from the AUS mode anytime during the autonomous flight of the SA, Descent Module. Transfer to the RUS mode is irreversible. In manually-controlled descent the cosmonaut using the RUS Handle buttons issues commands for the basic roll angle decrements of 15 degrees each, the maximal possible decrement being 45 degrees. In case of the attitude control equipment sensor failure the RUS mode is impossible.

Ballistic Descent
Баллистический Спуск

The BS (Ballisticheskii Spusk) is the descent with the average-integral zero lift. The BS is a backup descent mode used in case of the RUS mode failure or “nominally” is most emergency descent modes. However this mode, just like the AUS mode, can be selected in advance or can be transferred to from the controlled descent procedure in case off-nominal deviation occurs in the SA or its system operation. The latter case is called the “fall into БС”.

The ballistic descent can be executed in case of the descent control system failures resulting in loss of the spacecraft or the SA attitude control, failures in the descent reaction control system (the SA attitude control thrusters) etc. In all such cases the SA is driven into rotation about its velocity axis Oxv with the rate of ω.x=12.5 degr./s. The BS trajectory mainly features the atmosphere part range decrease by approximately 400 km with respect to the controlled descent and also the axial acceleration increase up to n.x=8.5 g.

In case of a failure in the primary equipment set used in the ballistic descent, transfer to the backup ballistic mode (BSP – Баллистический Спуск Резервный, Ballisticheskii Spusk Rezervnyi) is executed.

Unconditional compulsory selection of the ballistic descent is provided for the urgent descent from orbit in case of off-nominal situations jeopardizing the crew safety (depressurization, fire etc.). The ballistic (trajectory) support for such situations is envisaged: once a day (if no dynamic operations are accomplished) form №23-14 is uplinked to the crew onboard the ISS, that form containing data on the engine ignition and the retrofire impulse value for each revolution. The ignition time is selected so as to ensure landing in areas which are called backup landing areas and which are selected in advance taking into account the arbitrary position of the orbital path with respect to the Earth’s surface.

Rescue team

Because cosmonauts could land anywhere in the USSR (or elsewhere) a rescue team, initially comprised of parachutists, was formed in 1960 before Yurii Gagarin’s flight. On 10 October 1966 the paratroop rescue team was integrated into a special Rescue and Research organization in the Air Force. Later on a specialist organization was formed: the Federal Management of Research and Aerospace Rescues, ФПСУ, FPSU.

It is made up of one hundred men, equipped with Mi-8 helicopters, An-12 aircraft and a specially-designed all-terrain rescue vehicle. The FPSU are on standby during Soyuz launches and before and during landings. A helicopter lands near where the Soyuz capsule has come down and extract the cosmonauts (there is a special platform that is brought along and used if the capsule lands upright), taking them to a temporary field hospital set up nearby, then transporting them to the nearby town (usually Arkhalyk in the Northern Kazakhstan landing zone).

After the off-course landing of Soyuz TMA-1 (440 km off-course), the FPSU changed the deployment plan of its planes and helicopters.

In 2006 the FPSU was reorganized and merged with the civilian Russian Federal Aeronavigation Service (Росаэронавигации, Rosaeronavigatsii). The civilian and military services had previously conducted Soyuz retrievals as separate bodies; they now both were under the command of Rosaeronavigatsii (though not completely merged as both had specific tasks). The first mission they worked to retrieve was the landing of Soyuz TMA-8 in September 2006.

Diagrams

Diagrams from the MARS Center.

Soyuz TMA undocking sequence (all diagrams about 24 KB):

Soyuz TMA re-entry profile:

Gallery

Soyuz re-entry view

View of fiery plasma outside a Soyuz window during descent.

Soyuz TM-33 descends (ESA)

Soyuz TM-33 descends under its huge parachute, 5 May 2002

.
TMA-17 landing

Soyuz TMA-17 fires its Soft Landing Engines just before touchdown, 2 June 2010.

Soyuz TM-33 lands (ESA)

Soyuz TM-33 lands in Kazakhstan.

Expedition 11 are retrieved from the Soyuz capsule

Expedition 11 and Gregory Olsen about to be retrieved from the Soyuz TMA-6 Descent Module after landing on 11 October 2005. The capsule came to rest on its side.

Links

Soyuz launch profile

Descriptions of a typical Soyuz launch, taken from Expedition Press Kits and On-Orbit Reports.

Soyuz TMA-3 launch-and-ascent template

Soyuz 7S will fly a standard 34-orbit (2-day) timeline template from launch through docking. Actual day and time of launch must meet certain phasing requirements vis-à-vis the target (ISS) in order for this to work.

Flight operations are highly automated, reliant on stored program command timelines and standard command uplinks.

Soyuz and Progress follow the same basic timeline;

Soyuz crew activities are largely monitor-only functions, with a few exceptions;

Consequently, many systems activities occur only when Russian Ground Sites (RGS) are in line-of-sight (there are 5 RGS);

Rendezvous maneuvers are NOT constrained to occur over Russian tracking network. Post-burn telemetry and tracked is used for maneuver assessment.

Soyuz and Progress vehicles are controlled by a separate, dedicated flight control team in MCC-Moscow (TsUP), not the ISS team.

Soyuz crew operates off the RODF (Russian orbital data file), i.e., five books, covering Ascent/Descent, Orbital Flight, Off-Nominal Situations, Reserve Modes, and Reference Materials, as well as standard radiogram formats. Medical Kit and Portable Survival Kit instructions are translated into English.

Crew preparations for Soyuz launch
L −5 days Crew returned to Baikonur from Moscow where they had final medical; exercise, spacecraft briefing, flight plan briefing, Soyuz Manual Docking simulation; Practice using handheld laser for R and R-dot, P/TV Refresher
L −2 days Traditional events (Commission meetings on mission readiness at Baikonur Hotel) flight crew, backup crew, & flight surgeon, exercise, rest and study
Day of launch
L −3 hours Crew dons suits in test room; RSC-Energiya presentation everything GO with crew and vehicle (RSA); words from VIPs
L −2.5 hours Crew takes bus to launch pad, “waters” tyre about 200 meters from launch pad (old Gagarin tradition ;-)
L −2 hours Spacecraft ingress (through orbital module down into descent module)
Ascent to orbit
  • Takes 9 minutes. At L +9:00 the Soyuz spacecraft separates from the burnt-out booster, at 194 km altitude, 1710 km downrange from Baikonur;
  • major crew action during ascent is to monitor pressures in the orbital module (BO) and descent module (SA), confirm all booster separation, launch escape system jettison and spacecraft separation
  • Crew then monitors all automatic deployments (solar arrays, antennae, etc.), reports on no leaks, probe extension, prop pressurization, and ECLS system and health
  • First orbit should be about 233 x 182 km (average = 207 km). From there, the rendezvous profile follows the two-day standard timeline
  • Liftoff (выведение, vyvedenie)

– Source: 17 October 2003 On-Orbit Report.

Pre-launch

A nominal Soyuz pre-launch profile. This was originally in the Expedition 1 Press Kit, later also posted on the NASA Soyuz Launch Overview and Timeline page. The Press Kits from Expedition 7 onwards also have the same profile. All crews from ISS-7 onwards launched in the Soyuz.

Soyuz pre-launch profile
T −34 hours Booster is prepared for fuel loading
T −6:00:00 Batteries are installed in booster
T −5:30:00 State Commission give permission to take launch vehicle
T −5:15:00 Crew arrives at Site 254
T −5:00:00 Tanking begins
T −4:20:00 Spacesuit donning
T −4:00:00 Booster is loaded with liquid oxygen
T −3:40:00 Crew meets delegations
T −3:10:00 Reports to the State Commission
T −3:05:00 Transfer to the launch pad
T −3:00:00 Vehicle first- and second-stage oxidizer fuelling complete
T −2:35:00 Crew arrives at launch vehicle
T −2:30:00 Crew ingress though Orbital Module side hatch
T −2:00:00 Crew in re-entry vehicle
T −1:45:00 Re-entry vehicle hardware tested; Sokol suits are ventilated
T −1:30:00
  • Launch command monitoring and supply unit prepared
  • Orbital compartment hatch tested for sealing
T −1:00:00 Launch vehicle control system prepared for use; gyro instruments activated
T −:45:00 Launch pad service structure halves are lowered
T −:30:00 Emergency escape system armed; launch command supply unit activated
T −:25:00 Service towers withdrawn
T −:15:00 Suit leak tests complete; crew engages personal escape hardware auto mode
T −:10:00 Launch gyro instruments uncaged; crew activates on-board recorders
T −7:00 All prelaunch operations are complete
T −6:15
  • Key to launch command given at the launch site
  • Automatic program of final launch operations is activated
T −5:00
  • Onboard systems switched to onboard control
  • Ground measurement system activated by RUN 1 command
  • Commander’s controls activated
  • Crew switches to suit air by closing helmets
  • Launch key inserted in launch bunker
T −3:15 Combustion chambers of side and central engine pods purged with nitrogen
T −2:30
  • Booster propellant tank pressurization starts
  • Onboard measurement system activated by RUN 2 command
  • Prelaunch pressurization of all tanks with nitrogen begins
T −2:15
  • Oxidizer and fuel drain and safety valves of launch vehicle are closed
  • Ground filling of oxidizer and nitrogen to the launch vehicle is terminated
T −1:00
  • Vehicle on internal power
  • Automatic sequencer on
  • First umbilical tower separates from booster
T −:40 Ground power supply umbilical to third stage is disconnected
T −:20
  • Launch command given at the launch position
  • Central and side pod engines are turned on
T −:15 Second umbilical tower separates from booster
T −:10 Engine turbopumps at flight speed
T −:05 First-stage engines at maximum thrust
T −:00
  • Fuelling tower separates
  • Lift-off!

Launch & ascent

Soyuz launch & ascent profile
T −:00 Lift-off
T +1:10 Booster velocity is 500 meters/second
T +1:58 Stage 1 (strap-on boosters) separation
T +2:00 Booster velocity is 1500 m/sec
T +2:40 Escape tower & launch shroud jettison
T +4:58
  • Core booster separates at 170 kilometers
  • Third stage ignites
T +7:30 Velocity is 6000 m/sec
T +9:00
  • Third stage cut-off Soyuz separates
  • Antennas and solar panels deploy
  • Flight control switches to TsUP (Moscow Mission Control Center), Korolev

Diagrams

A diagram from the MARS Center site:

Soyuz modules

On this page, more detailed descriptions of the Soyuz’s three modules.

Overview

The Soyuz TMA, like the Progress cargo ship, is comprised of three compartments: a propulsion module, landing module and a utility module. Up to three cosmonauts can be carried into orbit (somewhat cramped accommodations for three full-grown men!) for 3 days or 34 orbits until docking with the ISS. The Soyuz remains docked as an emergency lifeboat for up to 200 days or 6 months until being replaced by a new ship. Up to 100 kg of cargo can be carried as well, and 50 kg returned to Earth (150 kg if only 2 crew members).

Characteristics

Soyuz TMA: basic data
Article number 11F732
Manufacturer’s designation 7K-STMA
Manufacturer Korolev
Crew size 2-3
Design life 14 days
Orbital storage 200.00 days
Typical orbit 407 km circular orbit, 51.6° inclination
Length 6.98 m
Basic diameter 2.20 m
Maximum diameter 2.72 m
Span 10.70 m
Habitable volume 9.00 m3
Mass 7220 kg
Main engine KTDU-80
Main engine thrust 400 kgf
Main engine propellants N2O4/UDMH
Main engine propellants 900 kg
Main engine isp 305 sec
Spacecraft delta v 390 m/s
Electrical system Solar panels, span 10.60 m, area 10.00 sq. m
Electric system 0.60 average kW
Associated launch vehicle Soyuz FG

Instrumentation/Propulsion Module
Приборно-Агрегатный Отсек

Soyuz TMA: Instrumentation/Propulsion Module data
Length 2.26 meters
Basic diameter 2.15 m
Mass 2900 kg
RCS coarse №× thrust 16 × 10 kgf
RCS fine №× thrust 8 × 10 kgf
RCS coarse backup №× thrust No separate backup translation engines
RCS propellants N2O4/UDMH
Main engine KTDU-80
Main engine propellants weight 310 kg
Main engine thrust 632 kgf
Main engine propellants N2O4/UDMH
Main engine propellants weight 880 kg
Main engine isp 302 sec
Electrical system Solar panels, span 10.60 m, area 10.00 m.2
Electric system 0.60 average kW

The rear module of the Instrumentation/Propulsion Module (PAO) is itself divided into three components:

The PAO is separate from the other two compartments, and can’t be accessed by the cosmonauts. Its functions are controlled remotely by TsUP, Moscow Mission Control.

Soyuz propellants

The propellants (fuel and oxidizer) in the Soyuz are:

The Soyuz’s stay in orbit is limited as the H2O2deteriorates over time, as this ISS On-Orbit Status Report from 2 September 2004 notes:

Update on Soyuz 9S: Launch of CDR Leroy Chiao and FE Salizhan Sharipov continues to be set for 10/9. Their Soyuz TMA-5 spacecraft is the first with two new features that are welcome improvements of the reliable old crew transport: two additional forward-pointing braking thrusters (#27, #28) besides the two engines (#17, #18) already near the Orbital Module’s docking ring; and a thermo-electric cooler for the Descent Module’s Hydrogen Peroxide tankage, to extend the life of the H2O2 which tends to deteriorate in time to H2O and O. (H2O2 is one of the most powerful oxidizers known – stronger than chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and potassium permanganate, but it has been [and still is, until certification] limiting Soyuz’ orbital stay time).

As noted in that extract, the addition of the cooling system for the H2O2 only extends the stay-in-space to 180-210 days (6-7 months) rather than a year as intended in the original more extensive Soyuz upgrade (called Soyuz TMM). This would have also included the installation of improved storage batteries and the oxidizer tanks to be made from steel rather than the current aluminum alloy.

Descent Module
Спускаемый Аппарат

Soyuz TMA: Descent Module data
Length 2.24 m
Basic diameter 2.17 m
Maximum diameter 2.17 m
Habitable volume 3.50 m3
Mass 2950 kg
Crew mass 255 kg
Payload 1355 kg
Return payload 50 kg (crew of 3), 150 kg (crew of 2)
RCS coarse №× thrust 6 × 10 kgf
RCS propellants H2O2
RCS propellants 40 kg
Main engine propellants 45 kg

The Descent Module (SA) is the command center of the Soyuz craft; this middle section contains all the mission-critical controls and displays. The spacecraft is operated by a digital computer, and displays are presented on two amber digital screens in the TMA version.

During ascent and descent, the two or three crew recline in Kazbek-U, «Казбек-У» seats; each crew member has a special seat liner moulded to his or her physical dimensions when seated on their back with knees up. The module is stuffed with life support equipment for every conceivable environment and situation that might be encountered upon landing.

The environmental system keeps the temperature around 18-20°C, and humidity at 40%. The atmosphere is a nitrogen/oxygen mix, like that of Earth’s.

Two small windows, 20cm in diameter, are set to port and starboard, at the elbows of the crew in the left and right-hand seats. (These windows have outside covers which are deployed during the hot plasma phase of reentry, then are jettisoned.) The commander sits in the middle, the first flight engineer to his left, and the second FE or space tourist to his right.

The commander (Командир Экипажа, КЭ, KE) is responsible for overall operations and decisions. He controls and flies the Soyuz during all flight maneuvers, and communicates with the ground. Docking is usually automated, but the commander can take over manual control if the system malfunctions for some reason.

The Soyuz is controlled by two joysticks on either side of the commander:

The first flight engineer (Бортинженер, БИ, BI) on the commander’s left and is responsible for thrusters, attitude control, navigation, life-support systems and general vehicle functions.

The third seat on the right is occupied by the second FE, or a guest cosmonaut-researcher (участник космического полета) or “space flight participant” (участник экспедиции посещения) (paying private visitor). In the Soyuz TM they were responsible for monitoring communications, navigation and life support systems, but in the TMA these have been shifted to the first Flight Engineer.

There is no forward-facing window for the commander to look out of, so between his knees is a periscope, through which he can observe the docking mechanism at the forward end, and also look downwards to see the Earth’s surface. To reach the controls he must use a stick to poke at the buttons! (I do not know the name of the stick.)

Like the PAO, the SA has a guidance, navigation and control system; the SA one is independent and less complex. Eight hydrogen peroxide thrusters are used to control the ship’s attitude; these are only employed in the descent phase (as are power batteries for the SA equipment). The propellant tanks are in a separate pressurized volume, sealed with an access cover, as are the primary and backup parachute containers.

The huge primary parachute has concentric orange-and-white stripes. Its release is preceded by two pilot and one drogue chutes. There is a slightly smaller reserve parachute.

After the modules separate, only the SA returns to Earth (hopefully!) intact. Landings can be rather rough, especially if there is a wind to catch the parachute and pull the capsule over and along after touchdown! The crew is then hauled out through the single top hatch (or, if the module has ended up on its side, they can crawl out). The hatch, 70cm in diameter, can be opened from either side.

The Soyuz improvements were based on NASA requests to accommodate its taller astronauts (perhaps they should eat less American junk food!!). These included:

From 2009, with the doubling in Soyuz flights from 2 to 4 per year due to the ISS crew being increased to 6, the previously single-use Kazbek-UM seats are to be reused. Their manufacturer, NPP Zvezda, is to make modifications to enable this. After landing of the Descent Module, the seats will be returned to Zvezda so their condition can be evaluated and the seats repaired.

Orbital Module
Бытовой Отсек

Soyuz TMA: Orbital Module data
Length 2.98 m
Basic Diameter 2.26 m
Maximum Diameter 2.26 m
Habitable Volume 5.00 m3
Mass 1370 kg
Docking system Lightweight male/female with flange-type probe, internal transfer tunnel. Kurs automatic rendezvous and docking system with two Kurs antennae, no tower
Docking collar length 0.22 m
Probe length 0.50 m
Base diameter 1.35 m
Ring diameter 1.35 m
Windows One “blister” window at the front to provide a forward view

The Orbital Module (BO) provides living space during the orbital phase of the Soyuz flight. Systems in the living quarters are analogous to those in the Zvezda Service Module, though in more compact form. The pressurized sphere contains food lockers, remote controls and the all-important space toilet (albeit a very basic one). The crew attach sleeping bags to the curved walls and sleep in these.

At the forward end of the BO is the docking equipment: Kurs apparatus, connecting hatch and rendezvous antennas. A crew member is stationed at the small blister window to aid the commander during docking.

There is a third hatch in the side of the BO through which the crew enter when boarding at the launch pad. It can also serve as exit/entry for EVAs with the BO used as an airlock (the other two main hatches are sealed off for this).

The pressurized, spherical BO is connected at its rear to the SA by a sealable hatch. Like the Instrument Module, the BO separates from the SA after retrofire during the deorbit maneuver, and disintegrates and burns up upon entering the atmosphere.

Diagrams

Gallery

Cosmonaut Budarin in Descent Module (NASA)

Cosmonaut Nikolai Budarin (Expedition 6) is very snugly seated in the Descent Module! The stick or pole he is holding is used to poke at the control panel in front of him as he can’t reach the buttons when tightly strapped into his seat.

Expedition 11 in Soyuz TMA trainer simulator (ESA)

Expedition 11 seated in the Soyuz flight simulator at Zvyozdnyi Gorokok, March 2005. John Phillips (left) is the second Flight Engineer; Sergei Krikalyov (middle) is the Soyuz commander, and Roberto Vittori is Flight Engineer-1.

Expedition 11 inside the Soyuz Orbital Module (ESA)

Expedition 11 inside the spherical Orbital Module during the 2-day flight to the ISS. (ESA)

Links

Soyuz orbit profile

After orbit insertion, the Soyuz usually spends two days chasing the ISS, performing various rendezvous burns and manoeuvres until it docks with the Station. Rendezvous and docking are usually automated (though monitored by TsUP, Moscow Mission Control when the Soyuz is within 150 meters of the Station). The crew can override the automated system and perform a manual docking if necessary.

The timeline below was originally published in the Expedition 1 Press Kit and describes the Soyuz TM-31 flight, but the TMA flight profile is virtually identical (as far as I know). It can also be found on the NASA Soyuz Orbital Insertion to Docking Timeline page.

Flight Day 1 overview

Orbit 1

Post-insertion: deployment of solar panels, antennas and docking probe

Orbit 2

Systems checkout: Infra-Red Attitude Sensors, Kurs, Angular Accelerations, Display TV Downlinks System, Orbital Maneuvering system (OMS) engine control system, Manual Attitude Control Test

Manual maneuver to +Y to sun and initiate a 2 degrees/second yaw rotation (to ensure the craft receives even thermal heating). MCS is deactivated after rate is established.

Orbit 3

Terminate +Y solar rotation, reactivate MCS and establish Local Vertical/Local Horizontal attitude reference (auto-maneuver sequence)

Auto maneuver to DV1 burn attitude (TIG −8 minutes) while loss of signal

DV1 phasing burn while LOS

Orbit 4

Auto-maneuver to DV2 burn attitude (TIG −8 minutes) while LOS

DV2 phasing burn while LOS

Crew report on burn performance upon AOS

Manual maneuver to +Y to sun and initiate a 2 deg/sec yaw rotation. MCS is deactivated after rate is established.

External boresight TV camera ops check (while LOS)

Meal

Orbit 5

Last pass on Russian tracking range for Flight Day 1

Report on TV camera test and crew health

Sokol suit clean-up

Orbit 6-12

Crew sleep, off of Russian tracking range

Flight Day 2 overview

Orbit 13

Post-sleep activity, report on HM/DM pressures

Form 14 revisions voiced up

Orbit 14

Configuration of RHC-2/THC-2 workstation in the HM

Orbit 15

TCH-2 (HM) manual control test

Orbit 16

Lunch

Orbit 17 (1)

Terminate +Y solar rotation, reactivate MCS and establish LVLH attitude reference (auto-maneuver sequence)

RHC-2 (HM) test

Auto-maneuver to burn attitude (TIG −8 min) while LOS

Rendezvous burn while LOS

Manual maneuver to +Y to Sun and initiate a 2 deg/sec yaw rotation. MCS is deactivated after rate is established.

Orbit 18 (2)

Post-burn and manual maneuver to +Y Sun report when AOS

Orbit 19 (3)

CO2 scrubber cartridge change-out

Free time

Orbit 20 (4)

Free time

Orbit 21 (5)

Last pass on Russian tracking range for Flight Day 2

Free time

Orbit 22 (6) – 27 (11)

Crew sleep, off of Russian tracking range

Flight Day 3 overview

Orbit 28 (12)

Post-sleep activity

Orbit 29 (13)

Free time, report on HM/DM pressures

Orbit 30 (14)

Free time, read-up of Form 2 “Globe Correction,” lunch

Flight Day 3: Auto-rendezvous sequence

Orbit 31 (15)

Don Sokol spacesuits, ingress DM, close DM/HM hatch

Orbit 32 (16)

Terminate +Y solar rotation, reactivate MCS and establish LVLH attitude reference (auto-maneuver sequence)

Begin auto-rendezvous sequence

Flight Day 3: Final approach and docking

Orbit 33 (1)

Auto-rendezvous sequence continues, flyaround and Station-keeping

Orbit 34 (2)

Final approach and docking

Flight Day 3: Station ingress

Orbit 35 (3)

Station/Soyuz pressure equalization

Fast rendezvous profile flight

A new flight profile was introduced in 2013, enabling the Soyuz to reach the ISS from launch in only 6 hours or 4 orbits, making the flight much less arduous for the crew. The profile was initially tested on Progress cargo ship flights (Progress M-16M onward), then debuted on Soyuz TMA-08M in March 2013. This is now the preferred profile, but it can be aborted to the 2-day flight profile if there are any issues (as happened to Soyuz TMA-12M).

The digital flight control systems of the latest Progress and Soyuz models enable the maneuvers to be performed autonomously without human intervention.

The ISS must be in the correct orbital plane to allow the FRP flight, and has to adjust its orbit through reboosts 6 months prior to the planned flight. If it has to do reboosts for any other reason (such as orbital debris avoidance), or if the launch itself is delayed, the Soyuz flight will fall back to the 2-day option.

Glossary

A/G
Air-to-Ground
AOS
Acquisition of Signal
DM
Descent Module, спускаемый аппарат
HM
Orbital Module, бытовой отсек
LOS
Loss of Signal
LVLH
Local Vertical/Local Horizontal
MCS
Motion Control System
OMS
Orbital Maneuvering System
RCS
Reaction Control System
R/G
Radiogram
RHC-2
Right-Hand Controller (Soyuz flight control)
THC-2
Translational Hand Controller (Soyuz flight control)
TIG
Time of/to Ignition
TLM
Telemetry
VHF
Very High Frequency

Docking: стыковка, stykovka

Diagrams

Links

Soyuz survival kit

As the Soyuz capsule could land anywhere between 51.6° north or south if the ballistic descent was off-course, the survival gear on-board must provide for landing on sea or earth. The equipment provided is extensive and comprehensive. Its acronym is НАЗ, NAZ (Носимый Аварийный Запас, Nosimyi Avariynyi Zapas) – Portable Survival Kit.

The book Russia’s Cosmonauts provides some details of the NAZ:

Every Soyuz craft carries a Granat-6, «Гранат-6» (Pomegranate) survival pack, which includes a “Forel” («Форе», Trout) hydro-suit – a one-piece orange nylon flotation suit with attached rubber soled feet and a hood trimmed with “CCCP”. The suit contains a “Neva,” «Нева» inflatable collar with an emergency mouthpiece, emergency beacon and a signal device on the shoulder. It also has rubberised cuffs, Velcro-close pockets on the legs (with ten pairs of small rings on the legs and eight pairs of grommets on the boots), and a pair of brown jersey mittens with separate thumb and index finger stalls, with watertight cuffs and adjustable orange nylon wrist straps. There is also a TZK-14 cold weather suit, with a royal blue nylon zip front anorak with attached mittens. This has two slash pockets with contrasting zips and a draw closed waist. Also included is a wool knit balaclava, a lined wool knit cap with button flaps, wool gloves, one pair of shearling socks and one pair of nylon over boots, elasticised at the top with Velcro-close at the heels. There are three other orange nylon packages in the pack. These contain survival equipment including a large canteen, a soft flask, dried food, a medical kit, a frying pan, signals and flares, a machete (which also doubles as the shoulder rest of the rifle/shotgun), a Makarov pistol with cartridges (TP-82m), a foraging bag, fishing tackle, and metal wire garrottes for use as a saw as well as for hunting. The combination of the “Forel” suit and thermal suit is intended to keep the wearer alive for up to twelve hours, if needed, in water of 2°C, with an ambient air temperature of -10°C (14°F). Coupled with the shelter of the descent craft, it is hoped that the clothing and supplies could support a cosmonaut for up to three days in conditions of severe cold.

The package weighs around 32.5 kg and is located in two triangular carrying cases that wedge snugly between the cosmonauts’ seats. The package is produced by the Zvezda Production Association. The first kits, called NAZ (portable emergency kit), were produced by Zvezda in 1960–61 and were carried on Vostok craft. After the problems encountered during the ballistic return of the TMA capsule containing the JSS-6 expedition crew of Bowersox, Pettit and Budarin, a satellite phone system has since been added to the kit.

The photo illustration link and extract below are from MiG Pilot Survival: Russian Aircrew Survival Equipment and Instruction by Alan R. Wise (1996 Schiffer Military History Books).

NAZ-3 contents

In Russian, a survival kit is designated as a Portable Emergency Kit, or by the abbreviation NAZ, НАЗ. The number or letter following the designation is relative to the series of kit of a particular application. For example, the NAZ-3 used aboard the Soyuz spacecraft is the third model spacecraft kit and not a predecessor of the NAZ-7 used in ejection seat-equipped aircraft.

The NAZ-3 is contained in two orange triangular aluminium containers with grey canvas tops and zippers. They are stowed between the seats. The NAZ-3 is designed to serve the three cosmonauts for 72 hours and includes (left to right, top to bottom in photo):

Makarov pistol and ammunition; wrist compass, 18 waterproof matches with striker; machete; fishing kit; strobe light with spare battery; 8 fire starters; folding knife; antenna; 3-pair wool gloves; signal mirror; NAZ-7M type medical kit; penlight; R-855-YM or R-855-A1 radio; two “Priboy 2S,” ПРИБОЙ-2С radio batteries; three wool balaclava hoods. Not shown are containers, three PSND, ПСНД hand-held flares; 15 mm flare set; whistle; sewing kit; insect repellent; wire saw; rations and 2-liter water container.

The pistol is used for shooting game should the crew be stranded for more than a few days, or scaring off wolves, bears, tigers, etc. Personally I think the crew would be in more danger from hostile humans – if they landed in a region that wasn’t too kindly inclined towards the nationalities on board.

This extract from Star-Crossed Orbits: Inside the U.S.-Russian Space Alliance by James Oberg, describes a different type of on-board gun:

Russian participation means that there are guns on board the ISS, and the guns belong to the Russians. This is not quite as alarming as it sounds, and officially it’s no secret. However, I could never find any mention of this design feature on NASA web sites or mission press kits. Actually, it’s a safety feature, and not an unreasonable one.

American astronauts who trained for the 1995–1997 Mir visits, and later as part of the Soyuz spacecraft crews for the International Space Station, encountered a unique feature that cosmonauts need to master: target practice. They have to know how to load, aim, and fire the special survival gun that has been on board all Soyuz spacecraft throughout their 30-year history.

The triple-barreled gun can fire flares, shotgun shells, or rifle bullets, depending on how it’s loaded. The gun and about 10 rounds for each barrel are carried in a triangle-shaped survival canister stowed next to the commander’s couch. The gun’s shoulder stock opens up into a machete for chopping firewood.

Familiarization with the gun usually takes place during survival training in the Black Sea, when the crews train to safely exit a spacecraft floating on the water (although a firing range at the cosmonaut center at Star City near Moscow is sometimes used for training). After floating around in the water for a day or two, the astronauts and cosmonauts take a few hours to fire several rounds from each chamber off the deck of the training ship.

“It was amazing how many wine, beer, and vodka bottles the crew of the ship could come up with for us to shoot at,” astronaut Jim Voss told me. “It was very accurate,” he continued. “We threw the bottles as far as possible, probably 20 or 30 meters, then shot them. It was trivial to hit the bottles with the shotgun shells, and relatively easy to hit them with the rifle bullets on the first shot.”

“It is a wonderful gun,” agreed Mir veteran Dave Wolf. “I found it to be well balanced, highly accurate, and convenient to use.”

Mike Foale trained with the gun and found it to be pretty standard. “Other than firing flares, bird shot, and a hard slug from its three barrels, during sea and winter survival training, I can’t say it is very unique,” he told me. He added, as if in reassurance, “The Soyuz commander controls its use.”

Every Soyuz spacecraft carries such a gun, although none of these guns have ever been unpacked in flight. And they have never been needed, with the exception of an incident in 1965, when bears (or wolves – the story varies) chased two far-off-course cosmonauts. The guns are often presented to crew members as postflight souvenirs. Although several survival kit bags have shown up at space auctions, I’ve never seen any of the guns for sale.

On the Soyuz TMA-11 flight in October 2007 the pistol was not carried for the first time in 20 years, as reported in the Guardian. There was a shortage of the special ammunition required for the gun – the original ammunition had deteriorated and no new bullets were available. Soyuz commander Yurii Malenchenko instead carried an ordinary pistol/handgun (a Makarov PM, Пистолет Макарова ПМ).

Soyuz crews with a U.S. astronaut on board are also provided with an Iridium/Motorola-9505 satellite phone and a Garmin GPSMAP 76 handheld GPS unit, which can be used anywhere on Earth, though the batteries might fail in very cold weather. The 9505 model, introduced in 2003, was upgraded to a newer version:

For the CDR, it was time again for the recharging of the Motorola Iridium-9505A satellite phone brought up on Soyuz 16S, a monthly routine job and his third time. [After retrieving it from its location in the TMA-12/16S descent module (BO), Sergey was to initiate the recharging of its lithium-ion battery, monitoring the process every 10-15 minutes as it takes place. Upon completion at ~4:50 p.m., the phone will be returned inside its SSSP Iridium kit and stowed back in the BO’s operational data files (ODF) container. The satphone accompanies returning ISS crews on Soyuz reentry & landing for contingency communications with SAR (Search-and-Rescue) personnel after touchdown (e.g., after an “undershoot” ballistic reentry, as happened during the recent 15S return). The Russian-developed procedure for the monthly recharging has been approved jointly by safety officials. During the procedure, the phone is left in its fire-protective fluoroplastic bag with open flap. The Iridium 9505A satphone uses the Iridium constellation of low-Earth orbit satellites to relay the landed Soyuz capsule's GPS (Global Positioning System) coordinates to helicopter-borne recovery crews. The older Iridium-9505 phones were first put onboard Soyuz in August 2003. The newer 9505A phone, currently in use, delivers 30 hours of standby time and three hours of talk, up from 20 and two hours, respectively, on the older units.]

– ISS Daily Report: 5 July 2008

The Sydney Powerhouse museum has an example of a NAZ-3 kit, from which the following description is taken (no photo available, unfortunately).

7/3/5 Emergency kit, portable, NAZ-3, used on Soyuz TM-9, metal/canvas/cloth/plastic/synthetics, Zvezda, USSR, 1989

Description

Emergency kit, portable, NAZ-3, used on Soyuz TM-9, metal/canvas/cloth/plastic/synthetics, Zvezda, USSR, 1989

Contains a range of survival gear and equipment for use by cosmonauts in the event of an off-course landing. The complete kit weighs 32.5 kg and consists of several components:

  1. Hydrosuit and mittens.
    • 1/1. Hydrosuit: “Forel” (trout) hydrosuit. One piece orange-coloured rubberised amphibious floatation suit, for use in emergency water landings. The suit has an attached hood made of yellow foam rubber trimmed in orange grosgrain which has an adjustable chin strap of bright orange nylon webbing, The integral rubber-soled boots can be cut off and used as overboots for crossing marshy terrain. They are fitted with metal lace-up rings and red plastic grommets from foot to knee to aid this conversion. Long sleeves have grey rubber cuffs. A “Neva” self-inflating floatation vest is also part of the suit and is attached at left and right front breast via bright orange nylon webbing straps and aluminium buckes. It fastens at centre front with bright orange webbing straps and a white plastic clip and ring. It also includes a backup manual inflation tube, emergency beacon and signalling light which is laced into a small pocket at right front with bright orange lacing. Gusseted pockets at left and right front thigh with flap that fastens with velcro, the right pocket contains four bright orange nylon laces for the boots. Centre front opening with a metal zipper to neck. There is an inset belt of grey webbing that fastens into place at centre front waist with velcro.
    • 1/2/1:2. Mittens: the suit comes with a pair of brown, foam-insulated nylon jersey mittens, with thumb and 2 wide finger stalls (ie: 3 fingers are meant to fit in last finger stall). They have a grey rubber gusset inside the opening and a bright orange webbing strap around the wrist which is adjustable via metal slip buckles.
  2. Cold weather suit: “TZK” cold weather suit, for use in case of landing in arctic/subarctic regions.
    • 2/1. Parka: padded hip length parka with hood, made of royal blue cire. It includes integral mittens with a opening at inside wrist that fastens with velcro. Two diagonal slash pockets at left and right front at hip level that fasten with white nylon zippers and two inside patch pockets at left and right breast. Drawstring of white cotton cord at waist. The parka carries two applique patches depicting the Zvezda logo at right front, and the state seal of USSR, with the Soviet standard (CCCP) on the left shoulder. Centre front opening fastens with white nylon zipper and overflap that fastens with four metal press studs. Machine sewn and fully lined with orange nylon.
    • 2/2. Jumpsuit: padded full length jumpsuit made of the same royal blue nylon as the parka. There is royal blue and white striped ribbing around the hight round neck and the cuffs of the long sleeves. Two patch pockets at left and right front breast and two patch pockets with diagonal openings at left and right front hip. The waist is elasticised and the centre front opening fastens with a white nylon zipper and seven metal press studs. The MIR space station patch is attached at the right front pocket. There are white elastic stirrup straps attached to the hem of legs. Machine sewn and fully lined with grey polyester satin.
    • 2/3/1:2. Overboots: pair of padded overboots made of royal blue nylon to match the parka and jumpsuit. Simple slip on style with elastic around the top edge and a short tab at the bottom of the heel with velcro to adjust fit. Fully lined with grey polyester satin.
    • 2/4/1:2. Ugh boots: pair of simple slip on sheepskin boots to be worn beneath the overboots. Both are marked on the sole 40-41. One boot has serial number 1313, the other is marked 1117.
    • 2/5/1:2. Gloves: pair of brown wool knit gloves with ribbed cuffs to be worn beneath mittens of the parka, marked “6”.
    • 2/6. Cap: peaked cap made of royal blue wool knit to be worn under parka hood. Has buttoned earflaps with dark blue plastic buttons and a covered button topknot. Marked: 8307, B.A.N. in Cyrillic, the initials of cosmonaut Alexander Nicholaievich Balandin. Machine sewn and lined with knitted grey wool.
    • 2/7. Balaclava: royal blue wool knit, to be worn under the cap and/or parka hood. Carries the same label as the cap.
  3. “Granat-6” (pomegranat) survival kit consisting of 3 separate containers. Each container has an orange nylon canvas casing fitted with braided nylon cords, metal clips, velcro tabs and zippers.
    • 3/1. Water container: rectangular water container made of plastic with plastic screw on lid and grey webbing strap across top, with external drinking tube held in place via orange webbing loops. Orange nylon cover has two white nylon cords attached with metal clips at the ends. Black stencilled markings in Cyrillic include serial number and the word “water”.
    • 3/2. First aid/mess kit “Block 2”: roughly rectangular package with two compartments. Both ends fasten with a metal zipper, orange webbing straps and slip buckles, one end also has straps and velcro. Attached to one end via metal D-rings are two red nylon cords with metal clip at each end. Serial number and contents stencilled on side in black. (The hypodermic needles and drugs have been removed.)
    • 3/3/1:2. Survival supplies “Block 3” and batteries (2).
    • -3/3/1. Roughly rectangular package is in two parts bound together by lacings, and has four compartments which fasten with velco or red nylon zippers. Contains a range of survival supplies including radio, machete, fishing tackle, matches, flares, wire saws etc. Nylon webbing carry strap and two long lengths of dark navy blue nylon cord with metal clips at each end. (Originally the kit also included a military issue pistol and cartridges).
    • 3/3/2-1:2. Two identical batteries, silver cover with black markings in Cyrillic.
Production notes

The “NAZ-3” (Nositoi Avaroinoi Zapac – Portable Emergency Supply) kit was designed for use with Soviet Soyuz spacecraft in the event of an off-course landing in an inhospitable area (such as Siberia or the Ural Mountains) or in water, from which the crew could not be quickly rescued. It was designed to provide survival gear for a crew of three for three days, and the complete kit would have included the Forel and TZK suits for all three cosmonauts.

The NAZ emergency kits were designed by the Zvezda Design Bureau from the beginnings of the Soviet space program. A certificate from Zvezda, in Russian, with a certified English tanslation, signed by the agency’s Director, G.I. Severin, accompanies the NAZ kit and confirms its design and manufacture by Zvezda.

The NAZ-3 kit was manufactured by the Zvezda Design Bureau in its own facilities, probably in Moscow.

History notes

This kit is certified by Zvezda as having been flown on board the Soyuz TM-9 mission, which was launched to the Mir space station on Feb 11, 1990 and returned to Earth on August 9, 1990.

This kit was produced by the Zvezda Design bureau and returned to it after Soyuz TM-9 flight, which was fortunately incident free. The Forel and TZK suits in the kit bear the initials of cosmonaut Alexander Balandin, the Flight Engineer on that mission, to whom they were assigned. Zvezda consigned the kit to the Sotheby’s New York space auction 16/3/96. It was Lot 367.

SoyCOM: 3.21. Носимый Аварийный Запас (НАЗ) (post-landing survival kit)

НАЗ purpose

The “Granat 6” НАЗ is designed for the Soyuz spacecraft crew life support at the off-nominal landing site during not less than 3 days.

НАЗ composition

The НАЗ Kit is made up of the following component groups:

Unit 1

The Unit 1 bag is made of orange capron. In the bag there are: potable water canister, crew checklist for off-nominal solid ground landing/water splashdown and a polyethylene flask. At the bag side in the pocket there is a mouthpiece for water drinking.

The 6-liter canister is made of Aluminium alloy and has two orifices: the greater one and the smaller one. The smaller orifice is used for inserting the mouthpiece and is covered with a thread plug. The greater orifice makes it easier to fill the canister with water, snow or ice to be melted and is covered with a coupling connector and a coupling nut. The crew checklist is put into a polyethylene bag and soldered. The soft polyethylene flask in tissue jacket is used for water stowage under the garment in cold weather.

Unit 2

The Unit 2 bag is made of rubberized tissue of orange color and has two pressure tight sections. In the upper section there are food rations and salt. In the lower section there are the medical aid kit and camp outfit articles. The medical aid kit contains medicines and dressing material. The medical kit composition and usage instruction data are on the label sticked to the kit cover inner part. The camp outfit includes: fishing tackle, dry fuel, wind resistant matches, needles/threads, wire saw (3 pieces). The medical cloak (3 pcs.) can also be used for precipitation/overcooling/overheating protection and for water collection. To provide for the crew meals there are three meal a day food rations for each crewman in the НАЗ Kit.

Unit 3

The unit is composed of two pressure tight bags connected to each other and to the raft which is laced up above. In the lower bag there is the emergency radio set with cables and power supply sources, signal/illumination aids, a lantern, light filters, a whetstone for sharpening knives, sticky plasters, a measuring glass and packets for vomit excreta. In the upper bag there are weapon, a machete knife in casing, the Air Force graded multi-tool knife and cartridges in bandoliers. The raft purpose is to provide for the Unit 3 positive buoyancy.

The emergency VHF band radio set purpose is to enable the off-nominally landed crew to communicate with the Search/Rescue Service planes and helicopters and to direct them to the crew actual position in the area. The radio set can operate in two modes: “Связь” (Communication) and “Маяк” (Beacon). The radio set is equipped with three power sources.

The weapon is a three-barrel pistol (“ТП-82” make). It is designed for light/audio signaling, hunting/game shooting and defense for beast-of-prey. For the upper two smooth-bore barrel shooting 12.5 mm cartridges are used, for the lower rifled barrel 5.45 mm bullet cartridges are to be used. The machete knife in casing can be used as a butt for the weapon. For giving light signals light signaling aids are used.

There are hydraulic combination suits (3 pcs stowed in one soft package) which are individual survival aids in case of the CA water surface splashdown. The suits have two eye-loops each to enable the crewman to be lifted from the water surface on board the hovering helicopter.

The thermal protection garment (3 sets, each stowed in 4 soft packages) is designed for the crew protection on the ground at the temperatures of down to −50°C and at the wind speed of up to 10 m/s. The set can be worn together with the underwear, flight suit and the hydro-suit. It consists of: combination suit, jacket, high boots, helmet, cap, fur socks and wool gloves.

Links

Soyuz crewed spaceship

The Soyuz («Союз», “Union”) spacecraft has been the workhorse of the Russian space program since 1967, and is currently the main means of transporting crews to and from the ISS. Sergei Korolyov originally conceived the Soyuz as a lunar ferry spacecraft (and it could still conceivably be used for that purpose).

The Soyuz is not reuseable; a new one is built for each flight and is docked to the ISS for 6 months. The old one is piloted by the crew returning to Earth; the central crew cabin separates from the other two compartments (these burn up in the atmosphere), and makes a ballistic re-entry, parachutes deploying to slow it down before touchdown on Earth.

The outward appearance of the Soyuz hasn’t changed much over the years, but the interior is equipped with modern avionics (a “glass cockpit”).

The Soyuz vehicle consists of 3 components: the Instrument-Assembly Module (Priborno-Agregatnyi Otsek, Приборно-Агрегатный Отсек); Descent Module (Spuskaemyi Apparat, Спускаемый Аппарат); and Orbital Module (Bytovoi Otsek, бытовой Отсек). They are described in more detail in the Soyuz components section.

On re-entry, the Instrument and Orbital Modules separate and are discarded; the Descent Module makes a ballistic (unpowered) descent through the atmosphere, deploys parachutes (hopefully!) and makes a soft landing in the northern Kazakhstan landing zone.

Both Utility and Descent Modules are covered with a charcoal-colored thermal insulation.

The Soyuz has a launch tower escape system, which is of some reassurance to its passengers! Should the rocket explode on the launch pad, or during ascent, explosive bolts are fired to separate the spacecraft’s descent module from its service module, and the rocket’s upper launch shroud from the lower. The escape system’s motor then fires, catapulting the module and shroud up and free of the booster to descend by parachute some kilometers away. Such an abort occurred in 1983 on the Soyuz T-10 mission (subsequently referred to as T-10-1 or T-10-a), with the two cosmonauts on board surviving intact (“Shaken but not stirred,” as James Bond might put it).

To date there have been two fatal Soyuz flights: Soyuz 1 (death of Vladimir Komarov on landing; parachute failed to open) and Soyuz 11 (deaths of Vladislav Volkov, Georgii Dobrovolskii and Viktor Patsaev during descent because of an oxygen leak.)

There have been five main Soyuz variants that actually flew into space.

The table below (from somewhere in the Novosti Kosmonavtiki forum) lists the variants that have flown under the Soyuz designation.

Soyuz types
Spaceship
Корабли		 Ship modification
Модификации корабля		 Beginning of operation
Начало эксплуатации		 Launches
Запуски
Soyuz Original/basic 1966 55
Soyuz T First modification 1974 21
Soyuz TM Second modification 1986 34
Soyuz TMA Third modification 2002 22
Soyuz TMA-M Fourth modification 2010 In use

Previous versions

There were several sub-variants flying under the original Soyuz designation. These are rather confusing to figure out! The variants below are linked to descriptions at Encyclopedia Astronautica.

There were also many other variants that were planned, but never built, including the versions intended for transport to the Moon and back, such as the 7K-L1 Zond.

An article by Asif Siddiqi in Spaceflight magazine March 2003, “Soyuz variants – a 40-year history,” describes the variants in detail.

The next major variant was the Soyuz T. The 7K-ST flew under the Soyuz T designation. It could carry three spacesuited cosmonauts, had solar panels and digital computers. 18 attempted launches between 1978-1986, 15 of which were manned. The first launch (T-1) was unmanned. One, Soyuz T-10-1 or T-10-a, failed to reach orbit (as mentioned above) as it aborted at launch. (The following flight was designated Soyuz T-10.) Thus there were 14 actual Soyuz T flights.

The Soyuz TM was a modernized version of the Soyuz T and flew 34 missions between 1986 and 2002.

Soyuz TMA

The Soyuz TMA (200 series) ferries crews to the International Space Station and back to Earth. It made its first flight in November of 2002, replacing the previous Soyuz TM version, which had been in service since May 1986.

The following was taken from the Energiya TMA page.

Soyuz TMA technical data
Name of characteristic, dimensions Meaning Remarks
Spacecraft mass, kilograms 7220  
Descent module mass, kg ~2900  
Crew, persons 2-3  
Orbit parameters
• inclination 51.6°  
• altitude, km
~ of insertion 202/238 (Perigree/apogee)
~ during spacecraft docking up to 425  
~ during spacecraft descent up to 460  
Geometrical characteristics of the spacecraft, millimeters
• body length 6980  
• maximal diameter 2720  
• diameter of living compartments 2200  
• solar array span 10,700  
Calculated mass of payload, kg (with a 3-person crew)
• delivered up to 100  
• returned up to 50  
Flying life, days 200 (Including the autonomous flight time)
Touchdown speed, meters/second
• with the main parachute system, maximum/nominal 2.6/1.4 (3.6/2.6 via Soyuz TM)
• with the reserve parachute system, maximum/nominal 4.0/2.4 (6.1/4.3 via Soyuz TM)
Launch vehicle Soyuz FG Developed for the Soyuz TMA spacecraft; it passed flight testing during the Progress spacecraft launches in the years 2001-2002
Anthropometric parameters of Soyuz TM and Soyuz TMA spacecraft
Parameters Soyuz TM Soyuz TMA
Cosmonaut/astronaut height, centimeters
• maximum, in the standing position 182 190
• minimum, in the standing position 164 150
• maximum, in the sitting position 94 99
Cosmonaut/astronaut chest circumference, cm
• maximum 112 not limited
• minimum 96 not limited
Cosmonaut/astronaut mass, kg
• maximum 85 95
• minimum 56 50
Maximum foot length, cm   29.5

Soyuz TMA-M

The Soyuz TMA-M (700 series) is a digital upgrade of the first TMA, making its first flight in October 2010.

In April 2006 the head of Energiya, Nikolai Sevast’yanov, announced that a new Soyuz variant would be developed, that would have digital control systems (rather than the current analog «Аргон-16», Argon-16), a new telemetry system and a new Russian «Курс-Н», Kurs-N approaching and docking system (rather than the Ukranian Kurs in use).

The Soyuz TMA now is equipped with five different radio-technical systems, and this means that there are established on board five bulky and heavy transmitters, five receivers and five amplifiers, developed in the 70s, with the application of analog components. However, digital technologies will make it possible to combine all these systems into one compact block.

– NK №566

The new TsVM-101 computer (which weights 8.3 kg) will replace the Argon-16 computer (which weighs 70 kg – manufacturer’s page, in Russian). The analog telemetry system will also be replaced by a lighter digital equvalent called МБИЦ, MBITS. The TsVM-101 will initially be installed in the rear Instrumentation/Propulsion Module of the Soyuz and Progress, but it is planned to later move it to the Descent Module to take over re-entry control functions from the KS-020M computer that currently handles this, and enable the TsVM-101 to be reused. This will not happen before 2010.

The table below shows the TsVM-101 specifications, from the manufacturer’s page (I am uncertain of some translations).

TsVM-101 specifications
Микропроцессор
Microprocessor		 1B812
1V812
Регистр-регистр
Register-Register		 24 млн.оп/с
24 million operations/sec
С плавающей запятой
Set floating-point		 6 млн.оп/с
6 million operations/sec
Оперативная память
RAM		 2 Мбайт
2 MB
Программная память
Program memory		 2 Мбайт
2 MB
Условия эксплуатации
Operating conditions		 ГОСТ РВ 20.39.304-98 гр.5.5 и 5.3
Потребляемая мощность
Power consumption		 от 40 до 60 Вт
Напряжение питания
Voltage range		 +27; −5 В
+27; −5 V
Габаритные размеры
Overall dimensions		 370 × 236 × 142 мм
Масса
Mass		 8,5 кг

This photo (from the NASASpaceflight.com forum) shows the difference in sizes between the two generations of computers.

These developments will enable the ship to be cheaper, lighter and more spacious. Only Russian-made systems would be used. There will also be an improved cooling system for the hydrogen peroxide re-entry control thrusters, enabling the Soyuz to remain in space for up to a year. The ship would be designated Soyuz TMA-Ts, «Союз-ТМА-Ц», the “Ts” meaning Цифровой, Tsifrovoi, digital (later changed to “M,” presumably for “Modernized”).

The new digital system will first be test-flown aboard a modified Progress-M (beginning from serial number 401), currently Progress M-65 in August 2008 (with a “standard” Progress as backup should the systems malfunction). The first digital Soyuz will be Soyuz TMA-01M N°701, to fly in October 2010.

From 2010 there will be a transition period when old and new versions of Soyuz and Progress will be flown.

At the 2006 Farnborough Airshow Nikolai Sevast’yanov said that the next modernized Soyuz variant would be able to stay docked to the ISS for nearly a year (360 days), and also do a circumlunar mission (around the Moon), re-entering the Earth’s atmosphere at the planetary escape velocity of 11.2 km/second. The heat shielding for the Descent Module would thus need to be strengthened and thickened. The external hull design would otherwise remain much the same.

Soyuz Spacecraft Upgrade Ups Payload By 70 Kg
Roskosmos, 26/09/2010

New onboard digital command and control systems have helped increase the payload of Russia's manned Soyuz TMA-01M spacecraft by 70 kg, the head of the Energia space corporation said. The new equipment replaces the Argon analogue system that has been used for more than 30 years, Vitaly Lopota said. A Soyuz with a new digital computing and telemetric system will be launched to the International Space Station on October 8.

The new onboard computer, the СС-101, will be tested by Russian cosmonaut Alexander Kaleri, Lopota said. The Soyuz TMA-01M will replace the Soyuz TMA series spacecraft that have been used until now, Lopota added.

Design of transport human space vehicle Soyuz TMA-M is based on Soyuz TMA’s one which has been commissioned in 2002. The modification was customized by the Russian Federal Space Agency. Prime contractor is RCS-Energia. The vehicle of new series features the same range of objectives as the previous series.

 Compare to the basic design, Soyuz TMA-M has the following upgrades:

The updates cover one of the steps aimed at development of the advanced new-generation space vehicle (ACV). Flight certification of the units and hardware installed on Soyuz TMA-M will allow to implement relevant solutions for ACV. External view of the upgraded vehicle is similar to the Soyuz TMA one.

Flight tests of the vehicle will include two missions to the ISS. The third mission of Soyuz TMA-03M is considered as acceptance. Flight tests are to confirm proper execution of the nominal operations and off-nominal cases, maneuvers, etc.

Soyuz MS

This is to be another incremental upgrade to the TMA model, the last major upgrade before the next-generation vehicle is introduced. The modifications will initially be tested on the Progress cargo ship, designated Progress MS. First flight is (as of December 2012) to be in early 2016. As described in a forum thread at NASASpaceflight.com, the main modifications will be:

From the Energiya website:

The manned transportation spacecraft Soyuz MS developed and built by RSC Energia is designed to deliver the crews of up to three and their accompanying cargoes to the International Space Station (ISS), as well as to return them to Earth. When attached to the ISS, it also serves as a crew rescue vehicle and is kept permanently ready for emergency crew return to Earth.

The new-series spacecraft Progress MS and Soyuz MS were developed as a result of a radical upgrade of Progress M and Soyuz TMA spacecraft. The onboard command radio system Kvant-B was replaced with an integrated command and telemetry system with an additional telemetry channel. The new command radio link will make it possible to receive signals via relay satellites Luch-5, which will significantly increase the radio coverage zone for the spacecraft – up to 70% of an orbit. The spacecraft are equipped with an advanced onboard radio system for rendezvous and docking Kurs-NA. As compared with an earlier model, Kurs-A, it has improved mass and dimensions parameters and makes it possible to delete from the spacecraft hardware configuration one of the three radio antennas. Instead of the analog TV system Klyost, the spacecraft use a digital TV system, which makes it possible to maintain communications between the spacecraft and the station via a space-to-space RF link. Also included into the onboard equipment of the Soyuz MS and Progress MS series spacecraft to replace the equipment that is being phased out of production is a new Digital Backup Loop Control Unit developed by RSC Energia, an upgraded Rate Sensor Unit BDUS-3A and a LED headlight SFOK. Thanks to the use of new ground and onboard radio systems, it became possible to use state-of-the-art data transmission protocols, which resulted in improved operational stability of spacecraft control system.

Most of the engineering solutions incorporated into the design of Soyuz MS and Progress MS spacecraft will be used in the design of the new-generation Crew Transportation Spacecraft, which is currently under development at RSC Energia.

Diagrams

Gallery

Soyuz TMA-6 approaching to dock (NASA)

Soyuz TMA-6 approaches the ISS to dock, 16 April 2005.

Soyuz TMA-9 and Progress M-57 docked

Soyuz TMA-9 (foreground) and Progress M-57 docked to the ISS.

Soyuz TMA-17 departing ISS

Soyuz TMA-17 departs the ISS on 2 June 2010, showing a closeup of its probe-and-drogue docking cone.

Links

Updated: 6/7/2016

TsUP: Moscow Mission Control

TsUP, Moscow Mission Control, (ЦУП, Центр Управления Полётом) (pronounced “tsoup”), is the control center for Russian ISS operations. Built in 1973 for the Soyuz-Apollo joint flight program, it is located in the main subdivision of the Central Scientific Research Institute for Machine Building (TsNIIMASH, ЦНИИМАШ), in the suburb of Korolyov (formerly Kaliningrad) to the north-east of Moscow. The Energiya corporation is also located here.

Various artificial satellites are also controlled from TsUP.

There are two similar large control rooms. The ISS control room was formerly used for the flight of the Buran space shuttle, and the room used for Mir operations is now the back-up flight control room for Houston flight controllers (in the event that a hurricane threatens MCC-Houston).

The current ЦУП flight director is former pilot-cosmonaut Vladimir Solov’ev.

ЦУП remains on Moscow Standard Time/Decreed Moscow Time (Декретое Московское Врема) all year round (i.e. it doesn’t switch to Daylight Savings in summer). (Those on the ISS follow Greenwich Mean Time – Universal Time Co-ordinated on Earth – Moscow is 3 hours ahead of GMT/UTC.)

The only place in Russia, where time adjustments are never made is the Mission Control Centre outside Moscow. According to its deputy chief, Viktor Blagov, the changeover would entail the adjustment of all computers. That may bring about major fails in the work of the computer centre, and as a result may be dangerous for the cosmonauts working in orbit.

– Greenwich Mean Time/Time Zones – Russia

Address: 4 Pionerskaya St., Korolyov, 141070, Moscow region.

TsUP structure

This table is derived from a diagram on the ЦУП site. Translations are only approximate; I don’t know what the abbreviations stand for (help appreciated! :-).

TsUP structure
ТРИ, TRI → Ballistics Complex Command Complex Telemetry Complex ← ТМИ, TMI
Orbital manoeuvring and descent Planning, forming, organizing and issuing commands Processing, representing and documentation of data РРСУ-Х, RRSU-Kh
Complex Modelling ЛВС, LVS КВИО, KVIO
Flight operations modelling and analysis Internal operations control and protection Telecommunications interpretation to outside agencies → → To space centers of France, Germany, EKA, USA, etc.
ИСО, ISO КСО, KSO КВО, KVO
The means of delivery on RM Collective representation Analytical center of KNS

Control Room layout

ГОГУ ЦУП размещение рабочих мест в главном зале ЦУП-М
GOGU MCC location of workplaces in the Main Hall of MCC-M
Не задействован
Ne zadeistvovan
Not involved		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Не задействован
Ne zadeistvovan
Not involved
Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 БРТС
BRTS		 БРТС
BRTS		 ОДУ
ODU		 СОТР
SOTR		 ГМО
GMO		 Не задействован
Ne zadeistvovan
Not involved
Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown
СУБК
SUBK		 БВС
BVS		 СУД-1
SUD-1		 СУД-2
SUD-2		 СЭП
SEP		 СОЖ
SOZh		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown
Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 ГОДЭ
GODE		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown
311-11 КПУ
KPU		 ГДПР
GDPR		 СРП
SRP		 ГО
GO		 ГОДЭ
GODE		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown
Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown
100-6 Неизвестно
Neizvestno
Unknown		 ГДПР
GDPR		 СРП
SRP		 ЗРП
ZRP		 ПРП
PRP		 ГПП и ДЭ
GPP i DE

Описание и назначение рабочих мест Главного Зала Управления (далее ГЗУ)
Description and appointment of workplaces of the Main Hall of Management (hereinafter GZU)
Словарь Акронимов, используемых в документе
Dictionary of Acronyms Used in the Document

ГДПР – Группа Долгосрочного Планирования и Реализации плана суточного полета космического экипажа
GDPR – Long-Term Planning and Implementation Unit of the daily plan of the space crew/ISS Expedition
ГЗУ – Главный Зал Управления – место, где находятся непосредственно рабочие места
GZU – The Main Office Hall, is the place where workplaces are located directly)
ГК – Группа Конструкции космического аппарата, осуществляющая слежение за состоянием и целостностью корпуса корабля или станции, работой системы терморегулирования и др.
GK – The Spacecraft Design Group, which monitors the condition and integrity of the ship or station hull, the operation of the temperature control system, etc.
ГКУ – Группа Командного Управления
GKU – Team Management Group
ГМО – Группа Медицинского Обеспечения, контролирующая состояние здоровья экипажа
GMO – Medical Support Group, crew health monitoring control
ГО – Главный Оператор по связи с экипажем космонавтов
GO – Chief Operator of communications with the cosmonaut crew
ГОГУ – Главная Оперативная Группа Управления
GOGU – Chief Operator Management Group
ГОДЭ – Группа Обеспечения Действий Экипажа космонавтов, занимающаяся в том числе и подготовкой всего радиообмена
GODE – The Cosmonauts Crew Operations Support Group, which is involved in the preparation of the entire radio exchange
ГПП и ДЭ – Специалист по Подготовке Персонала и анализу Действий Экипажа
GPP & DE – Crew Training and Performance Analysis Specialist
ГЦН – Группа Целевой Нагрузки, отвечающая за проведение научных экспериментов на борту космического корабля или станции
GTsN, Target Load Group responsible for conducting scientific experiments aboard a spacecraft or station
ОДУ – Объединённая Двигательная Установка
ODU – United Propulsion System
СЭП – Специалист по Системе Электропитания
SEP – Power System Specialist
СПП – Суточная Программа Полета, отражающая порядок работы бортовых систем космического корабля или станции
SPP – Daily Flight Program, reflecting the operating procedure of the onboard systems of a spacecraft or station
СРП – Сменный Руководитель Полетом космического корабля или станции
SRP – Interchangeable Flight Manager of a spacecraft or station
СУД – Система Управления Движением. 1 – Отвечает за СУД РС МКС, 2 – за ТК (не факт )
SUD – Motion Control System. 1 – responsible for the ISS RS SUD; 2 – for the TK [not a fact?]
ЗРП – Заместитель Руководителя Полета
ZRP – Deputy Flight Director

From the NASA Shuttle-Mir website:

During Shuttle-Mir, the Russian Space Agency (RSA) had three control rooms in a single complex in Kaliningrad [renamed Korolyov]. MCC-M could process data from up to ten spacecraft, although each control room was dedicated to a single program: one to Mir; one to Soyuz; and one to the Russian “space shuttle,” Buran. Flight control people were organized into teams, similar to NASA’s system at MCC-Houston:

Back-up control center

As noted above, Houston MCC has a back-up room in the TsUP center, and at intervals conducts tests of its functions:

Starting at 5:00 a.m. EDT and running for seven hours, MCC-H and its support group in Moscow (HSG) conducted another BCC (Backup Control Center) dry run in test mode, with no involvement of the ISS crew or vehicle. Purpose of the periodic exercise was to demonstrate BCC functionality under Russian assets (RSA EIS server and RSA command drop box) as usual and this time under the new IBM Shark server, while providing proficiency training for HSG (Houston Support Group) personnel at the HSR (Houston Support Room). [The ISS EMCC (Emergency Mission Control Center), located in Russia, comprises TsUP/Moscow as the Lead Control Center, coupled with HSR at TsUP. The BCC facility provides a command and control capability from TsUP if the EMCC must be activated. This is the case in situations that render MCC-Houston unable to provide telemetry, voice, and command capability for extended periods. EMCC is also used when the threat of severe weather results in evacuation of the MCC-H building for extended periods. In su ch an emergency, both Russian servers (CMD/command & TM/telemetry) are transitioned from MCC-H connectivity to BCC configuration, after which only the BCC can connect to the CMD and TM ports. An actual contingency requiring switchover to the BCC occurred on 10/2/2002 when Hurricane Lili forced MCC-H to shut down at 4:00 a.m. EDT.] (27/9/04 On-Orbit Report)

TsUP history

From a page on the old TsUP site at the Internet Archive:

TsUP history overview
1960-1964 Creation of the Computing Center (VC) as part of the State Research Institute of Jet Weapons – NII-88 (since 1967 TsNIImash). Beginning of spacecraft (SC) control since 1963. Since January 1964, the EC has been the head ballistic center for the flight of a manned spacecraft “Voskhod-1” with cosmonauts V.M. Komarov, K.P. Feoktistov and B. B. Yegorov.
1965-1972 Transformation of CC to the Coordination and Computing Center (CEC). Providing control of automatic interplanetary stations “Venus”, “Mars”, satellites for national economic and scientific purposes (“Meteor”, “Proton”, etc.), a backup ballistic center for providing manned flights (the Soyuz spacecraft, the Salyut station).
1973-1975

Creation of a new complex of technical means on the basis of the CEC of the Soviet Central Control Center to ensure the implementation of the Soyuz-Apollo pilot project with the United States (EPAS).
1977-1982 The assignment of mission control tasks for all domestic spacecraft, manned orbital and automatic interplanetary stations. Flight control of the Salyut-6 orbital station.
1978-1988 Ensuring flight control of automatic interplanetary stations to Venus “Venus -11, -12, -13, -14, -15, -16”, “Vega-1” and “Vega-2” – to the comet of Halley, “Phobos-1” and Phobos-2 – to Mars and its satellite Phobos.
1982-1991 Flight control of the Salyut-7 orbital station.
1986-2001 Flight control of the Mir space station.
1987-1988 Commissioning of the new flight control system of the universal rocket and space transport system (URKTS) “Energy” – “Buran”.
1991 Assignment of a new direction of work on the simulation of complex systems to solve problems of space and other sectors of the national economy.
1995-2007 Functioning in the composition of the information management center of the coordinate-temporal and navigation support (IAC KVNO). In April 2007, IAC KVNO separated from the MCC structure and became an independent center within TsNIIMash.
1998 Start of control of the International Space Station (ISS). The first module of the station, the functional cargo block Zarya, was put into orbit on November 20, 1998. Currently, the Russian segment of the ISS includes the Zarya, Zvezda, Pirs, Poisk, Rassvet modules, the Soyuz-TMA-M transport manned spacecraft, the Progress М-М and ships of the new series “Progress MS”.
1999 Creation of the sector and the beginning of the spacecraft control of the scientific and socio-economic purpose “Ocean-O” for remote sensing of the Earth
2000 Determination of the PCO as the head organization in a new and relevant direction – the creation of an automated system for collecting, processing, analyzing and transmitting information about space objects of natural and man-made origin in near-Earth space.
2005 Commissioning of the upgraded Information and Analytical Navigation Center for monitoring GLONASS and GPS systems.
2006 The MCC began to control the Resurs-DK1 satellite intended for multispectral remote sensing of the earth’s surface.
2007 Creation of the Center for Situational Analysis, Coordination and Planning of the Operation of the Facilities of the Civil Ground Automated Complex for the Control of Spacecraft. The MCC is charged with the tasks of operational planning and coordinating the use of ground-based facilities, evaluating the operation of these facilities, analyzing the state of the orbital constellation of the NSES and ISS spacecraft, as well as ground-based controls, interacting with external organizations, including foreign ones, to attract their funds to the management of the NSES spacecraft.
2008 MCC began work on the deployment of a multi-functional space relay system (MCSR) “Beam”.
2011

Beginning of control of the Electro-L spacecraft No 1 intended for solving operational meteorology, hydrology, climate and environmental monitoring tasks.

MCC began to manage the first telecommunications satellite of the multifunctional space relay system (MKSR) “Luch-5A”.
2012

The MCC began to operate the Kanopus-V satellite No 1 intended for operation as part of the space complex for the operational monitoring of man-made and natural emergencies.

MCC began to manage the second satellite of the multifunctional space relay system (MKSR) “Luch-5B”.
2013 Beginning of control of the Resurs-P satellite No 1 created by the mission control center for multi-spectral remote sensing of the earth’s surface.
2014

The MCC began to control the Resurs-P satellite No 2 intended for multispectral remote sensing of the earth’s surface.

The PMU began to manage the third satellite of the Luch-5V multifunctional space relay system (MKSR). The system in its entirety operates in flight test mode.

Beginning of trial operation of the first stage of the automated warning system for hazardous situations in near-Earth space (ASPOS OKP).
2015

The MCC began to control the Elektro-L spacecraft No 2 intended for solving the problems of operational meteorology, hydrology, climate and environmental monitoring.

For the first time, the flight of a new Progress-MS transport cargo vehicle was experimentally controlled using the satellite group of the Luch multi-functional space relay system (MKSR), which allows for receiving and transmitting information at sites outside the radio-visibility areas of Russian ground tracking stations.
2016 The MCC began to control the Resurs-P satellite No 3 intended for multispectral remote sensing of the Earth’s surface.

Gallery

TsUP exterior (NASA)

Exterior view of TsUP in the city of Korolev outside Moscow, 21 April 2004.

TsUP control room (NASA)

View of the TsUP main control room. It shows a view of the control floor from the balcony (note the sponsors’ logos at the front!). The huge main display screen shows a projection of the orbiting ISS’s (and Soyuz’s or Progress’s) ground track, and the tracking range of the Russian ground sites. This “footprint” changes with the height of an orbiting spacecraft (it increases with altitude).

Links

Updated: 17/6/2020

TsPK – Star City

The Star City complex contains the primary center in Russia for training cosmonauts and international space travelers, the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center (GCTC, or TsPK after its Russian acronym). It is part of Military Unit 26266 or в/ч 26266, a research and training facility.

The complex is divided into two sections, Star City to the west and the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center (TsPK) to the east – TsPK was the military section enclosed by a perimeter fence. They are usually collectively referred to in English as Star City, Zvyozdniy Gorodok.

Star City is located outside of Moscow approximately 40 kilometers to the northeast. It is south-east of and close to Chkalovskii, Чкаловский Airport (Pos.: 55°52′07″N, 038° 03′07″E), itself part of Shchyolkovo, Щёлково city. A train can be boarded from Moscow at Yaroslavskii Station, where an over-1-hour ride through 17 stations will deposit the visitor at Tsiolkovskaya Station just outside TsPK.

TsPK officially came into being on 11 January 1960. As a Russian Air Force military facility, its existence was initially secret and the place heavily-guarded as a closed military town. Until 2009 – when it was handed over to civilian control under the Russian Federal Space Agency – its Chief, who oversaw TsPK, was an Air Force officer. From the 1990s, when the Mir and ISS programs required international visitors to train there, the city became more open (though not entirely), and tours were given to outsiders.

TsPK was named after Yurii Gagarin on his death in a flight training accident in 1968. It was given the status of a Scientific Research and Test institute in 1969.

Star City provides extensive resources for the military personnel and cosmonauts who live there; it is an almost-self-contained town.

Cosmonauts used to have to live in Star City for security reasons during the Soviet era, and there are extensive housing facilities for cosmonauts and other personnel around the City. Cosmonauts can now, however, live anywhere that is convenient (such as in Moscow).

Full names:

Cosmonaut Training Center named after Yu. A. Gagarin (Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center, GCTC)
Центр Подготовки Космонавтов имени Ю. А. Гагарина (TsPK, ЦПК)
Tsentr Podgotovki Kosmonavtov imeni Yu. A. Gagarina
Russian State Scientific Research Test Center for Cosmonaut Training named after Yu. A. Gagarin
Российский Государственный Научно-Исследовательский Испытательный Центр Подготовки Космонавтов им. Ю. А. Гагарина (RGNIITsPK, РГНИИЦПК)
Rossiiskii Gosudarstvennyi Nauchno-Issledovatel’skii Ispytatel’nyi Tsentr Podgotovki Kosmonavtov im. Yu. A. Gagarina
Star City (more accurately, Starry Town)
Звёздный Городок
Zvyozdnyi Gorodok

Training facilities

As of 2009, there has been more than 45 different simulators used at TsPK over the years, with 4 generations to date, ranging from early analog to the latest digital versions, with the 5th generation in development. The currently-used simulators reflect the Russian space program’s main focus on the International Space Station:

Stands provide virtual training simulations for parts of spacecraft and modules. (See Simulators)

There is a space planetarium that can project up to 9000 stars. Inside this is the AFMS, astronavigation functional modeling stand (Астронавигационный функционально-моделирующий стенд, Astronavigatsionnyi Funktsional’no-Modeliruyushchii Stend), which is used to train cosmonauts to recognize star constellations for space navigation and orientation.

The Hydrolab – Гидролаборатория, Gidrolaboratoriya – is used for simulating spacewalks. Two facilities, Vykhod-1 and 2, enable the simulation of zero-gravity by suspending spacesuit wearers from pulleys in the ceiling.

There are two centrifuges. The smaller TsF-7 dynamic trainer-centrifuge began operating in March 1973 and has a radius of 7 meters, rotating to a maximum load of 20 g. The large TsF-18 opened in 1980 and has an enclosed cabin; it rotates to a maximum of 30 g.

Parabolic flights provide up to 30 seconds of weightlessness during the descent phase of a parabola. A Tupolev Tu-104 was first used in the 1960s. The aircraft used is the Ilyushin Il-76 (designated the Il-76MDK), and there are three of these specially-outfitted jets in the Seryogin Regiment at Chkalovskii. Microgravity experiments, EVA training and familiarization with weightlessness are performed. A modified Tupolev Tu-154 is used for training in Earth observation and space navigation; space equipment is also tested on it.

Simulators for older programs that are no longer used are sometimes stored outside due to lack of space.

On November 28, 2010 the Russian Orthodox Church of the Transfiguration of the Lord was consecrated:

Today in the Star City His Holiness Patriarch Kirill of Moscow and All Russia performed the rite of the great consecration of the Church of the Transfiguration of the Lord in Star City.

The events continued with the first Divine Liturgy in honor of the beginning of the Nativity Fast, which was served by the Primate of the Russian Orthodox Church. The solemn Liturgy was attended by the head of the Federal Space Agency Perminov AN, the head of the Cosmonaut Training Center named after Yu.A. Gagarin SK Krikalev, Deputy Chairman of the Government of the Moscow Region V.А. Egerev, the head of the administration of the closed administrative and territorial formation Star City pilot-cosmonaut Volkov AA, head of the urban district of the ZATO Star City Rybkin NN, commander of the cosmonaut detachment Yu. V. Lonchakov, Soviet cosmonauts and RF, specially invited guests.

After the Liturgy, Patriarch Kirill addressed the audience with a speech. He said that astronautics is the pinnacle of engineering thought and that the Church and science must unite their efforts in studying the universe.

His Holiness the Patriarch presented the high orders of the Russian Orthodox Church to those who took part in the construction of the Temple. Father of Job (Talac) was appointed Rector of the Church of the Transfiguration of the Lord. Head of the TsKK named after Yu. A. Gagarin SK Krikalev. and the mayor of the Star City Rybkin NN. in memory of the consecration of the Church of the Transfiguration of the Lord in the Star City was presented as a gift to His Holiness Patriarch Kirill icon.

After that, His Holiness Patriarch Kirill of Moscow and All Russia laid flowers to the monument of the first cosmonaut of the Earth Yu.A. Gagarin visited the Cosmonaut Training Center, where he inspected simulators of the Russian segment of the International Space Station and the transport manned spacecraft Soyuz.

The Church of the Transfiguration of the Lord in Star City is a wooden church with thirteen blue domes, designed and supported by philanthropists A.N. and G.N. The Kuznetsovs. At the same time it recalls the ancient buildings of the island of Kizhi and a rocket aimed at the sky. In the inner space of the temple there is not one supporting column or other structure that makes the worship of the worshipers difficult (the load of the tent is divided into eight corners). The temple is built of Angara pine, the iconostasis is made of cedar by Siberian carvers.

– TsPK

Military to civilian control

In 2009 the Russian Air Force decided to hand TsPK over to civilian control, namely to the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roskosmos), as announced by the Roskosmos news service on 27/4:

On April 27, Anatoly Perminov, Head of the Russian Federal Space Agency, held a meeting with the management of Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center.

The meeting was attended by Alexey Panteleev, Vice Governor of the Moscow region, Valery Chernov, Territorial Settlement Minister of Government of the Moscow region, Vitaly Davyidov, State-Secretary-Deputy Head of Roscosmos, and the heads of Roscosmos Directorates.

Anatoly Perminov opened the meeting. In particular, he said:

“… GCTC history is linked tightly with foundation and evolution of the Russian and world human space programs. GCTC has everything required for crew training: modern unique labs and simulators, validated methods, high-quality expertise. The renewed Center will face more achievements in space exploration.

“Following the Order of the Russian Government, Roscosmos and Ministry of Defense now carry out the reorganization work to establish a Federal State Budget Entity under Roscosmos. There are some problems connected with GCTC hand-over to Roscosmos, and we discussed those with D.A. Medvedev, Russian President, at the meeting devoted to the Cosmonautics Day.

“The Act of the Russian President dated Jan. 19 also defines reorganization of the military city into a Restricted Administrative Territorial Settlement. Here, we appreciate the support provided by the Governor and the Government of the Moscow region a lot …

“Roscosmos and Ministry of Defence still have to do much to finalize liquidation process until July 2009. All the assets are to be handed over to Roscosmos, personnel is to get new appointments in the Federal State Entity, etc.

“All the issues regarding social protection of GCTC personnel will be solved.

“We have to work hard to establish a renewed Center, and to found a new City, which deserves its name of the Cosmonaut Training Center.

“I am sure that the personnel will support implementation of all current and future tasks related to cosmonaut training, and add more pages to the history book of the Russian space exploration.”

The formal transfer was to be completed by 1 July 2009. One reason for the transfer was cost-cutting by Minister of Defence Anatolii Serdyukov.

From an online video report at Roskosmos TV of a news conference, 16 May 2009:

ZATO without epaulets

The centre of preparation of cosmonauts named after Yurii Gagarin is on the threshold of a new life. In Star City the approach has changed. Officers will remove epaulets, the military become civil experts. Such are the realities of life. In the conditions of military reform from the Ministry of Defence the Center is transferred to the Federal Space Agency. Henceforth it will be ФГБУ, FGBU – a Federal state budgetary establishment.

"We will be ready to take any measures to create in Star City the normal conditions for the functioning of all social infrastructure that there was a corresponding investment climate. Everything that it will be necessary to make from outside the governments it is made in the near future,”assured Alexei Panteleev, the vice-governor of Moscow Region.

In official documents the town will be referred to as ZATO, the closed administrative-territorial entity (ЗАТО – закрытым административно-территориальным образованием) as it is still connected with classified activities.

“It is a territorial regime that is connected with many secrets – state secrets – which we are obliged to keep classified. It imposes certain restrictions,” Yurii Gidzenko, the head of department of special preparation at TsPK, explained.

More than 200 military men will continue service at the new Star City without transferring to the reserves. Recently the same kind of reforms took place at the Baikonur cosmodrome. Now it as a part of the Russian Space Department. Today it is possible to be proud of civilian Baikonur.

“After a year or two it is already impossible to ascertain the objects which we have accepted from the Ministry of Defence,” Anatolii Perminov, the head of the Federal Space Agency, has emphasized.

Being a past military man, Colonel-General Anatolii Perminov understands how it is hard to transfer to being a citizen. The head of Russian Space Department has assured the Star City officers that he will personally supervise all reorganisation processes.

“No one will be thrown overboard, we'll try not to offend,” promised Anatolii Perminov.

For people at Star City it is necessary to live on the Earth. Some officers live in service apartments from the Ministry of Defence, while others have no allocated housing. The question is difficult to solve. There will be a housing program in TsPK. “Epaulets, remain on for life, and most importantly, in the soul of this officer and others the best traditions are honored,” Aleksei Panteleev said.

In July the preparation center will be headed by Sergei Krikalev – the Hero of Soviet Union and the first Hero of Russia. He is not a military man, but expectations of officers are clear to him. The working group of the commission will consider all questions. Hospitals, drugstores, kindergartens, food industrial complexes – the infrastructure of Star City should be maintained.

The new leadership promises to improve the life of the town and attract young professionals a decent wage, with interesting business and promising projects. After all, Russia’s space program has already been set out for 30 years.

On 28 July 2009, for the first time in the history of the Star City, election of the city mayor and deputies of the Deputy Counsel took place in the City. (Roskosmos). There was a scandal surrounding the initial candidate, as described in this news article, where Colonel of the FSB Nikolay Rybkin was arrested for allegedly organizing the illegal delivery of an exceptionally large contraband of Chinese goods through Baltic Customs. This caused much indignation in Star City as he was a popular figure, and some thought the arrest a set-up.

A curious bit of trivia, regarding some Australian black swans (one of which can be seen in this Roskosmos news report):

One of his widely known acts was reintroducing twelve swans that inhabit the town’s lake. There was a time when Star City was proud of these birds, but during perestroika, someone ate the swans and sent the bones to the town’s administration. Rybkin, once again, ordered the swans from abroad.

On 22 October 2009, former cosmonaut Aleksandr Volkov became Head of Star City Administration – this is a separate role from that of the TsPK Chiefs. Coincidentally, he did two long space missons with Sergei (Mir Principal Expeditions 4 and 10). (Roskosmos interview, only in Russian).

On 7 December 2010, the Chief of Roskosmos, Anatolii Perminov, signed the Order “About Establishment of Roscosmos’ United Cosmonaut Corps,” to be formed before 1 January 2011.

Two new transport aircraft

In March 2019 TsPK received the first of two modified and dedicated Tu-204-300 passenger jets for the transport of cosmonauts and launch personnel to and from Chkalovsky Airfield and launch centers such as Baikonur.

A post at NASASpaceflight.com forum:

As reported by the Roscosmos State Corporation for Space Activities, on 29 March 2019, the first of two planned Tu-204-300 aircraft has been handed over to Yuri A. Gagarin State Scientific Research-and-Testing Cosmonaut Training Center (part of Roscosmos group) at the military airfield of Chkalovsky (ICAO: UUMU) in the Moscow region.

The Tu-204-300, factory no. 1450742864045, serial no. 64045 has been registered as RA-64045 and named after the legendary Soviet designer and scientist Sergey Korolev. The plane has been equipped at CJSC Aviastar-SP facility in Ulyanovsk (part of United Aircraft Corporation), which is responsible for manufacturing of An-124 and Il-476 cargo aircraft, as well as the whole Tu-204 family (except Tu-214).

The second Tu-204, named after the first cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, will be transferred from the same location in early April 2019 and according to the head of the Cosmonaut Training Center P.N.Vlasov, both airplanes are identical in design.

This specialized modification of the Tu-204 includes roughly two thousand changes to the original layout, incl. satellite communication system that provides telephone connection and Internet access during the flight. Each of these specialized Tu-204-300s can accommodate up to 53 passengers located in three cabins, as well as six specialized compartments for additional crew members. Due to necessity to reach the new Vostochny spaceport, located on the 51st parallel north in the Amur Oblast, in the Russian Far East, the range of the aircraft has been increased to 9,000 km.

The main mission of these aircraft will be transportation of astronauts and the operational group of the Roscosmos corporation to space centers and back to the base upon landing. Additional tasks include flight training of astronauts for conducting visual and instrumental observations. According to Vlasov, first main and backup crews should board the new aircraft on the way to Baikonur spaceport in Kazakhstan this summer.

Press announcement at Roskosmos (also at TsPK):

On March 29, the airfield Chkalovsky of the Ministry of Defense of Russia hosted the transfer to operation of the joint aviation squadron of the FGBU SRI TsPK named after Yu.A. Gagarin of one of two Tu-204-300 aircraft. The plane arrived from Ulyanovsk is named after the legendary Soviet designer and scientist Sergei Korolev.

The event for the transfer of the aircraft was attended by the head of the Cosmonaut Training Center Pavel Nikolaevich Vlasov, the executive director of the manned space programs of the Roscosmos State Corporation Sergey Konstantinovich Krikalev and the general director of the leasing company Ilyushin Finance Co. (IFC) Alexander Ivanovich Rubtsov.

The second Tu-204-300 aircraft, transmitted to the Center from Rusaviainter JSC and the IFC, is named for the first cosmonaut of the planet, and its haul from Ulyanovsk is scheduled for early April. “Both airplanes are identical in design and made within the same technical assignment,” said the head of the Center Pavel Vlasov. “The main tasks of the aircraft of this class are the transportation of astronauts and the operational group of the Roscosmos State Corporation to space launching centers, returning after landing to the base, as well as flight training of astronauts for conducting visual and instrumental observations,” added Pavel Nikolaevich. The head of the Center expressed hope that the main and backup crews would fly to Baikonur for the pre-flight Tu-204-300 for pre-flight preparation for the summer launch.

Both aircraft Yuri Gagarin and Sergey Korolev are made in a special layout, allowing to accommodate up to 53 passengers, located in three cabins. Sergey Krikalev, commenting on the characteristics of the cabin, noted that the aircraft are equipped with six specialized coupes. This is due to the possible increase in the number of crew members on a prospective ship. “In 2012, when work was carried out to determine the appearance of these aircraft, the construction of the first launch complex of the Vostochny cosmodrome began. In this regard, the Tu-204-300 aircraft has a greater range in order to travel up to nine thousand kilometers without landings, ”said Sergey Konstantinovich.

The general director of the IFC, Alexander Rubtsov, noted that it was a great honor for the company to hand over the aircraft to the Center for operation. “During the construction of the Tu-204-300 for the CPC, we had to make more than two thousand changes to the design documentation. This is a multi-purpose aircraft that provides astronauts with the most comfortable transportation,” A. Rubtsov added. The planes are equipped with a satellite communication system that provides telephone connection and Internet access during the flight.

Tu-204-300 aircraft Sergei Korolev

Tu-204-300 aircraft Sergei Korolev arrives at Chkalovsky airfield, 29/3/2019.

Sergei Krikalyov watches Tu-204-300 aircraft &quote;Sergei Korolev" arriving

Sergei Krikalyov, Executive Director of Manned Space Programs at Roskosmos, watches the Tu-204-300 aircraft Sergei Korolev arriving at Chkalovsky airfield, 29/3/2019.

Diagrams

Maps from the book Russia’s Cosmonauts (2005):

Google Maps screenshots. North is to the top in these:

Aerial photos at the TsPK site, looking west: 1, 2

TsPK Chiefs gallery

Karpov

Eu.A. Karpov, colonel of medical service
Полковник м/с. Е.А.Карпов (1960-1963)

Odintsov

M.P. Odintsov, Air Force colonel-general, twice Hero of the Soviet Union
Генерал-полковник авиации дважды Герой Советского Союза М.П.Одинцов (1963)

Kuznetsov

N.F. Kuznetsov, Air Force major-general, Hero of the Soviet Union
Генерал-майор авиации Герой Советского Союза Н.Ф.Кузнецов (1963-1972)

Beregovoi

G.T. Beregovoi, Air Force lieutenant-general, twice Hero of the Soviet Union
Генерал-лейтенант авиации дважды Герой Советского Союза Г.Т.Береговой (1972-1987)

Shatalov

V.A. Shatalov, Air Force lieutenant-general, twice Hero of the Soviet Union
Генерал-лейтенант авиации дважды Герой Советского Союза В.А.Шаталов (1978-1991)

Klimuk

P.I. Klimuk, colonel-general, twice Hero of the Soviet Union
Генерал-лейтенант авиации дважды Герой Советского Союза П.И.Климук (before 2003)

Tsibliev

V.V. Tsibliev, lieutenant-general, Hero of Russia
Генерал-лейтенант, герой России, В.В.Циблиев (2003-2009)

Krikalyov

S.K. Krikalyov, С.К.Крикалёв, Energiya cosmonaut, Hero of the Soviet Union & Russia, first civilian Chief (2009-2014)

Lonchakov

Yuri Lonchakov, Юрий Лончаков, (9/4/2014-2017)

Vlasov

Pavel Vlasov, Павел Власов, first non-astronaut to head Star City since 1972 (24/11/2017-)

Links

Updated: 20/4/2020

Docking Compartment-1 Pirs

Pirs computer illustration (ESA)

Pirs («Пирс», “Pier”) has two roles: as an airlock for spacewalks from the Russian segment, and as a docking port for Soyuz or Progress ships.

It was launched at 23:34:55 UTC on 14 September 2001 on a Soyuz rocket. A specially-modified Progress cargo ship, Progress M-SO1, ferried Pirs to the International Space Station.

Pirs was to serve as an interim docking and spacewalk port until the launch of the second FGB or Universal Docking Module. It would then be moved to the azimuth or top port of Zvezda’s Transfer Compartment, to serve as a base for the Science and Power Platform (NEP). The original plan was to discard the module once the better-equipped UDM arrived, but after funding cuts it appeared Pirs would be kept. Even that plan became obsolete with cutbacks to Shuttle launches (the NEP, which was to have been carried up via two Shuttle flights, was cut out of the launch manifest).

The 2006 plan saw Pirs moved to the zenith (top) port of Zvezda’s PKhO, Transfer Compartment and still used as an extra docking port for Russian spacecraft.

The current plan saw it eventually replaced by MIM-2, but from late 2009 until the MLM is launched, both modules will be attached to Zvezda (MIM-2 to zenith, Pirs in its current nadir location). On launch of the MLM, a Progress spacecraft will be docked to Pirs and used to haul it away and deorbit it.

The DC had a projected lifetime of 5 years, though this has been much extended.

A RIA Novosti article for 12 July 2018 reported that Progress MS-12, unofficially nicknamed “Gerasima” (Герасима) in honor of the hero of the story of Ivan Turgenev “MuMu” (Муму), was to launch in April 2019 to dock with and deorbit Pirs once the science module Nauka is launched (the article stated from November 2018 to February 2019). The Progress will be undocked from the station only after Nauka is put into orbit and the working capacity of its propulsion system and control system is tested – the module will have to make its way to the ISS.

As of 2019, the launch date of MLM Nauka had been put back to July 2020.

Full name: СО-1: Стыковочный Отсек-1 / DC-1: Docking Compartment-1 / SO-1: Stykovochnyi Otsek-1

Structure

Pirs has one docking port at either end along its longitudinal axis: one active, the other passive. The active hybrid port, SSVP-M G8000, ССВП-М Г8000 is joined to the nadir port of the Zvezda Service Module. There are electrical connections to transfer power, and hydraulical connections to enable fuel to be transferred from a Progress cargo ship through Pirs to Zvezda’s storage tanks. The passive cone docking point, SSVP G4000, ССВП Г4000, on the opposite end enables Soyuz and Progress ships to dock. It also has fuel and power connection lines.

Pirs is equipped with 4 external antennae to measure relative motion between it and the ISS for its initial docking, and also the Kurs-P system to enable Soyuz and Progress ships to dock automatically to the DC-1.

Inside Pirs are controls for temperature regulation, communications, control of the module, television and telemetry systems and a power supply. There is also a ventilation duct with 3 fans.

The forward half-sphere of Pirs, which has a diameter of 2200 mm, was produced with the same dies and equipment used to construct the forward half-spheres (BO, Orbital Module, бытовой отсек, Bytovoi Otsek) of the Soyuz and Progress ships.

Two manually-operated Strela, «Стрела» (“Arrow”) cargo booms (ГСт-1, GSt-1 & 2) are attached to the base of Pirs (to attachment points BST-1, БСТ-1 & -2) for moving around cargo and cosmonauts. GSt-1 parts were brought up with STS-96 Discovery in 1999 and STS-101 Atlantis in 2000, and attached to the outside of PMA-1 until being retrieved and installed on Pirs in the 8 October 2001 spacewalk. GSt-2 was brought up inside Pirs, and installed during the 14 January 2002 spacewalk.

Pirs takes an hour and 40 minutes to depressurize, and forty minutes to repress. It has two 1000 mm-diameter hatches with windows set in (each 230 mm diameter). Hatch BL-2, БЛ-2 faces between forward and port (planes 2 and 3); BL-1, БЛ-1 faces between starboard and aft (planes 1 and 4). The hatches have annular handrails on the outside and inside.

Each hatch is designed for 120 openings. The hatches open from the inside, ensuring that the atmospheric pressure inside helps keeps them sealed. Unfortunately, some air is lost when a hatch is opened and there is no way of retrieving it (in the U.S. Quest airlock, evacuated air is pumped into retrieval tanks).

Hatch opening

The following hatch opening instructions are taken from yellow stickers (barely) visible in ISS photo ISS004-E-10640, showing Roberto Vittori and Mark Shuttleworth inside Pirs. EV hatch opening:

WARNING: DO NOT OPEN THE EV HATCH IF THE COMPARTMENT PRESSURE EXCEEDS 15mmHG [?].

  1. Hatch tool tab → РАБОЧЕЕ ПОЛОЖЕ НИЕ (working position)
    • √ [check] emergency closure screws are inserted to the hard stop
    • √ handles on hatch rotation → ЗАКР. (closed)
  2. Engage hatch tool on the hatch drive shaft.
  3. Hatch tool → in direction of arrow ОТКР. (open) to the hard stop.
    • √ [?] rollers → ОТКР. (open).
  4. Pusher handle → shut to the hard stop [?]. Move the pusher handle until pressure is equalized.
  5. Open the EV hatch
  6. [?] adjustable [?] and secure it to [?] of Panel 201.
  7. Remove ВЛ-2 [?] (if any)
  8. Report EV hatch opening time (GMT)
  9. Activate Orlan sublimator on exit from DC-1.

EV hatch closing:

  1. Remove the EV hatch frame ring
  2. √ EV hatch interface rubber seals are not damaged
  3. Retrieve the EV hatch from the [?] restraint lock
  4. Move the EV hatch to touch the EV hatchway flange
  5. Rotate the hatch tool in direction of arrow ЗАКР. (closed to the hard stop)
    • √ [?] rollers → ЗАКР. (closed)
  6. Disengage the hatch tool from the hatch drive shaft.

Data tables

Pirs: fundamental technical characteristics
Mass at launch, kg 4350
Mass in orbit, kg 2882
Length of casing, mm 4049
Maximum diameter, mm 4350
Volume of airtight sections, cubic meters 13
Reserve mass for deliverable cargoes 800
Assembly orbit altitude 350-410 km
Working orbit altitude 410-460 km
Length with Docking Assembly extended 2.55 m
Pressurized compartment volume 13 m3
Manufacturer Energiya
Progress M-SO1 launch data
Designation M-SO1 (No 301)
NASA designation 4R
Module designation SO-1 240GK
Launch vehicle Soyuz-U (No 677)
Launch date 15 September 2001 at 23:35
Launch site Launch Complex 17P32-5, Area 1, Launch Pad 5, Baikonur Cosmodrome, Republic of Kazakhstan
Docking date 17 September 2001 at 01:05 to the Zvezda SM nadir docking port
Undocking date (MSO-1 Instrument Unit) 26 September 2001 at 15:30
Destruction 26 September 2001 at 23:30
Mission This special variant of the Progress brought the Pirs Docking Compartment-1 module into orbit, along with some supplies, including . The cargo delivered by the vehicle of an overall mass of about 800 kg incorporated such cargoes as flight equipment of Docking Compartment Pirs of about 290 kg (cargo boom, external worksite, portable universal container); science and utilization hardware of about 65 kg including hardware for performance of space experiments and research Plasma Crystal-3, GTS, as well as Andromeda program (to support the Russian-French flight to be performed in October during the ISS visiting crew mission), egress equipment of about 285 kg including spacesuit Orlan-M No 14, life support system equipment of about 130 kg, and flight data files
Notes Progress M-SO1 consisted of a standard Progress Instrument Unit and control systems with the Pirs combined docking unit and airlock replacing the usual tanker and orbital modules
Cargo ship Progress MSO-1 (from ЦУП, TsUP)
Mass of ship-module on orbit injection 7130
Mass of Docking Compartment Pirs when fully loaded 3676
Fuel mass in the tanks of the cargo ship 875
Carrier rocket-type Soyuz
Parameters of the working orbit of the ship
• Height to 450 km
• Inclination 51.6°
Duration of flight prior to docking with the Station up to 4 days
Cargo delivered in DC-1 Pirs (from ЦУП, TsUP)
Items Weight (kg)
Regular equipment of docking module, stored in the transport position (Strela cargo boom, working place extension, the universal transfer container) 288.6
Spacewalk equpment (Orlan-M No 1280014, oxygen canisters, CO2 absorbent cartridges, water storage containers, universal storage containers) 285.6
Equipment for life support systems 128.4
Equipment for Zvezda SM 13.3
Scientific gear
• For the French program “Andromede” 46.6
• For the “Plasma Crystal-3” experiment 9.2
• For medical studies 6.7
• For the GTS experiment 2.0
Flight documentation 13.4
Total 793.8

Diagrams

Cargo ship-module Progress M-SO1

Pirs diagram
  1. Docking module Pirs
  2. Transitional adapter
  3. Instrumentation/Propulsion Module
  4. Plane of the divided joint
  5. Hybrid active docking assembly SSVP-M
  6. Rod with the television camera
  7. Place of fastening rod with the omnidirectional antennas 2АR-VKA and AR-VKA
  8. Rod with the omnidirectional antennas 2АR-VKA and AR-VKA in the starting position
  9. Rod from the antenna orientation 4AO-VKA in the starting position

(Block with the hydro-steel framework of pumping propellant components is shown without the jacket.) (Diagram via NASA)

The Progress M-SO1 transport ship was a modified version of the Progress M cargo ship. It consisted of the Pirs DC-1 at the front, a transitional adapter and an Instrumentation/Propulsion Module.

The PAO (Instrumentation/Propulsion Module, Priborno-Agregatnyi Otsek, приборно-агрегатный отсек) at the aft end was identical to that of the normal Progress. It contained propulsion fuels and support systems to enable M-SO1 to reach the ISS autonomously.

The transitional adapter connected the PAO with Pirs. Pirs was connected with the adapter via a divided joint which contained 5 pyro-locks and propulsion units. After Pirs docked to the base of Zvezda, the pyro-locks were fired to separate the M-SO1 section from Pirs and deorbit it.

Gallery

Pirs under construction

Pirs under construction at Energiya in Moscow, 2001.

Nadir view of Pirs

A nadir view of Pirs taken during the STS-108 mission in 2001. Zvezda is towards the top of the photo. Hatch VL-2 is visible, and a Strela crane. (Starboard at left of photo, port to right here as it’s upside-down.)

Mark and Roberto inside Pirs

Roberto Vittori and Mark Shuttleworth inside the Pirs module.

Links

Updated: 12/4/2019

Service Module Zvezda

Zarya computer illustration (ESA)

Zvezda («Звезда», “Star”) is the core of the ISS, providing living quarters and life support for the crew. It was originally intended for the Mir-2 space station and the design was based on the Mir Core Module, but when this was canceled after the fall of the Soviet Union, it was amalgamated into the ISS instead.

Zvezda is the first entirely Russian module (i.e. built and funded by Russia). The main developer was RKK Energiya and main subcontractor was GKNPTs Khrunichev. It was launched on a Proton-K rocket on 12 July 2000.

Zvezda is the most complex structure as it has many tasks to support: crew and ground communications, life support, Station orientation, enabling the approach and docking of Russian Progress and Soyuz ships, supporting experiments and spacewalks.

Full name: СМ: Служебный Модуль / SM: Service Module / Sluzhebnyi Modul’

Structure

Zvezda is a cylinder comprising four sections.

Sections

PKhO transfer compartment (ПхО, Переходный Отсек – PKhO, Perekhodniy Otsek): This spherical compartment provides 3 docking ports (it could be built with 5) and also serves as a back-up airlock if no specialized airlock is attached as it can be depressurized. It is the transfer point between the SM and the other ISS modules. It is 2.78 m in length with a volume of 6.85 m3. There are four lights inside. It has one axial (facing forward) and two lateral (top and bottom) hybrid passive docking ports of the type SSVP-M G8000, ССВП-М Г8000. Zarya is permanently docked to the axial port. The top port was to have supported the Science & Power Platform (НЭП, NEP), but with the cancellation of this, Pirs will eventually be moved there instead. Pirs is currently docked to the bottom (Earth-facing) port.

The Progress and Soyuz ships can’t dock to any PKhO ports as they have a different docking mechanism (probe-and-drogue). The PKhO ports are for modules only.

Working compartment section (РО, Рабочий Отсек – RO, Rabochii Otsek): This is the largest part of the SM and contains life support systems, instruments and crew quarters. It is 7.7 meters in length and has a total of 14 windows. It comprises two cylinders joined together by a conical adapter:

The intermediate chamber (ПК, Промежуточная Камера – PK, Promezhutochnaya Kamera): This is the transfer point between the RO and a docked Soyuz or Progress spacecraft. It is 2.0 m in diameter and 2.34 m in length. The internal volume is 7.0 m3. At the aft end is the passive docking assembly SSVP G4000, ССВП Г4000 (probe-and-cone type). The port can accommodate Soyuz and Progress dockings, and the European Automated Transfer Vehicle. A TV camera is attached to the outside to enable visual display of dockings.

The assembly compartment (АО, Агрегатный Отсек – AO, Agretatnyi Otsek): This is wrapped around the PK at the aft end and is unpressurized. It is used to position the orientation and propulsion engines around the module. There are also various antennae mounted for communications.

Docking ports summary

Systems

The onboard control complex (БКУ, Бортовой Комплекс Управления – BKU, Bortovoi Kompleks Upravleniya) that oversees the operation of the Russian ISS modules comprises the following systems:

The electrical power supply system (СЕП, SEP) supplies power to Zvezda, and can also transfer power from the U.S. segment if needed. Solar power is gathered by two solar arrays (СБ, SB) of 38 m2 each. They can be oriented toward the sun either automatically or manually by the crew. Power is stored in 8 800A storage batteries (АБ, AB).

The united engine installation (ОДУ, ODU) controls and stabilizes the ISS. There are 2 two main corrective engines (КД KD) and 32 smaller engines (ДО, DO) 11D428A for precision orientation. The oxidizer used is nitric tetraoxide and propellant is nitrogen. The tanks these are stored in are replenished by Progress cargo ships. The module has 4 tanks (2 for fuel, 2 for oxidizer), which can contain up to 860 kilograms of propellant in total.

The thermal control system (COTP, SOTR) maintains the temperature inside the modules and regulates air ventilation. It is separate from the other systems and works constantly. Temperature in the crew compartments is maintained in the 18°C to 28°C range.

The life support system (СОЖ, SOZH) provides extensive equipment to remove CO2 and other impurities via the Vozdukh, provide oxygen via the Elektron generator or solid cannisters and generally maintain an appropriate atmospheric composition (СОГС, SOGS) for humans. Water provision (СВО, SVO) is enabled through a condensate regeneration system and is also brought up from Earth and stored in tanks. A toilet and washroom facilities support crew hygiene needs (SSGO). There are, of course, food supplies onboard (СПО, SPO). There is also a fire detection system and extinguishers. Medical supplies are also provided.

Data tables

Zvezda: fundamental technical characteristics
Maximum crew the module can support to 6
Mass in orbit, kg 20,295
Length of housing, mm 13,110
Maximum diameter, mm 4350
Volume of airtight sections, cubic meters 89
Spread of solar batteries, mm 29,730
Area of photovoltaic cells, meters squared 76
Average power of power supply, KVT/SUT 9.8
Fuel mass, kg 860
Duration of functioning in orbit, years 15
Manufacturer Khrunichev
Zvezda launch data
Designation 17KSM No 12801
NASA designation 1R
Launch vehicle Proton-K (No 398-01)
Launch site Launch complex 81/23, Baikonur Cosmodrome, Republic of Kazakhstan
Launch date 12 July 2000 at 04:56:36
Docking date 26 July 2000 at 00:45 to Zarya aft port
Mission Launch of Zvezda Service Module (docked with Zarya). Third ISS module to be launched (after Zarya then Unity)

Diagrams

Zvezda windows

Zvezda has 14 windows, most downward-facing. There is one window in each kayuta, каюта (No.s 1 – port, and 2 – starboard – not shown here), and 6 set into the floor of the Working Compartment (No.s. 3-8), plus one 40 cm-diameter Observation Window (No 9) set into the flared skirting between the Working and Living Compartments. There are 3 22.8 cm windows in the Forward Transfer Compartment for viewing docking activities, and one set into the rear docking port. Window 7 has a shade; window 4 a vertical sight. (Diagram from the PDF documents linked to below.)

External links to three Zvezda exterior diagrams at Spaceref.com (PDF documents – to save without opening the document, right-click on the link and select “Save Target As”):

The following Zvezda exterior diagrams are taken from the Space Station User’s Guide: NASA ISS EVA Operations Documents PDFs at Spaceref.com:

Boeing diagram: Zvezda Service Module: Early Crew Living Quarters (71 KB).

Gallery

Zvezda in orbit

Nadir view of Zvezda in orbit, 2 December 2000.

Aleksandr Kaleri eating a meal at the Galley table

This view shows an aft view of the Service Module; starboard is to the left, port to right and the hatch leading to the docked Progress cargo ship is behind Aleksandr Kaleri (ISS-8), who is at the Galley table. To his right is one of the twin kayuti, каюты (cabins – singular: kayuta, каюта). Photos of Yurii Gagarin and Konstantin Tsiolkovskii are attached to the panel above the rear hatch.

Interior view of Zvezda, looking forward

A view looking forward (toward Zarya), showing the Central Workstation with its four laptops.

Links

Updated: 12/4/2019